FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

THE  EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS 


MACDONALD 


GIFT  OF 


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FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


THE  EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS 


By 


ALICE   B.   MACDONALD 

HEAD  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE 
LAWRENCE  (MASS.)  HIOH  SCHOOL 


ov  TToXV  aWd,  TTOXU 


BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  &  CO. 

BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 
1911 


l^-'Wv 


COPTHIQHT,    1911 

Bt  ALICE  B.   MACDONALD 


PREFACE 

Two  demands,  seemingly  conflicting,  have  made  a 
new  first-year  book  in  English  for  high  schools  a  neces- 
sity,— the  first  being  the  demand  of  the  college  for 
better  written  English  on  the  part  of  the  entering  stu- 
dents; the  second  being  the  demand  of  the  public  for  a 
more  democratic  distribution  of  courses  than  a  college 
preparatory  school  offers. 

An  examination  of  the  two  demands  will  show,  how- 
ever, that  they  are  after  all  not  diametrically  opposed. 
Right  thinking,  clear  and  adequate  expression,  effi- 
ciency, are  the  reasonable  and  just  demands  both  of  the 
public  and  of  the  college.  Neither  is  concerned  with 
the  method  of  doing  the  work,  so  long  as  desired  results 
are  obtained.  The  demand  of  the  college  for  efficiency 
of  expression  has  led  to  compulsory  courses  in  English 
in  our  high  schools,  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 
number  of  hours  required  for  the  study.  No  longer  is 
it  felt  that  only  the  gifted  few  can  write;  it  is  demanded 
that  all  shall  write.  The  demand  of  the  public,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  led  to  the  reduction  of  the  elementary 
courses  from  nine  years  to  eight,  and  the  introduction 
into  the  high  schools  of  the  so-called  vocational  courses. 
The  result  has  been  to  increase  enormously  the  size  of 
our  first-year  classes.  These  people  also  must  be  taught 
to  write.  In  its  way,  then,  the  demand  of  the  college 
is  as  utilitarian  as  the  demand  of  the  public.  Both  are 
asking  that  the  youth  of  our  land  shall  be  taught  to 

iii 

251961 


iv  PREFACE 

express  themselves  with  the  lucidity,  the  ease,  the  direct- 
ness, the  force,  of  which  our  noble  language  is  capable. 

As  high  school  teachers  we  have  been  slow  to  arise  to 
the  occasion.  Our  teaching  has  often  been  too  aca- 
demic; we  have  copied  the  college  methods  without 
examining  them  to  see  whether  they  were  pedagogically 
sound  as  high  school  methods.  The  consequence  has 
been  that  we  have  allowed  our  classes  to  drift  along, 
with  the  burden  of  real  preparation  placed  on  the  pupils 
of  the  upper  classes.  Such  slipshod  work  as  this  not  only 
has  failed  to  prepare  classes  properly  for  college,  but  has 
left  out  of  account  those  pupils  who  are  not  preparing 
for  college,  as  well  as  those  who  leave  school  before  the 
course  is  completed.  We  are  beginning  to  see,  how- 
ever, that  English  as  well  as  other  branches  of  study 
can  be  taught  in  a  definite  and  logical  manner;  that  the 
proper  time  for  beginning  the  work,  whether  in  prepara- 
tion for  college  or  for  the  world  at  large,  is  in  the  first 
year;  that,  sound  as  college  methods  may  be  for  the  col- 
lege, they  may  not  be  sound  for  the  high  school;  that  the 
whole  of  rhetoric  should  not  be  taught  in  the  first  year, 
or  in  any  year,  any  more  than  the  whole  of  algebra  or 
the  whole  of  Latin;  that  a  book  containing  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  rhetoric  is,  at  this  early  stage,  in  the  highest 
degree  confusing;  and  that  practice  under  direction  is 
essential  to  coherent  expression. 

There  has  been  accordingly  a  shift  in  the  emphasis. 
The  comprehensive  rhetoric  written  by  a  college  pro- 
fessor for  adult  classes  or  for  teachers,  has  yielded  to  the 
simple  text-book  written  by  a  teacher  for  a  specific  class. 
We  are  laying  the  foundations  of  rhetoric  where  they 
should  be  laid,  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  course. 


PREFACE  V 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  this  shifted  emphasis,  this 
book,  "Foundation  Englis  h,"  has  been  prepared.  It  is  a 
book  of  exercises,  designed  for  a  specific  class,  to  be  taught 
by  teachers  who  presumably  have  obtained  their  prepara- 
tion in  the  principles  of  rhetoric  elsewhere  than  in  the 
pages  of  the  book  used  in  their  classes.  The  exercises 
have  grown  out  of  the  needs  of  actual  classes,  and  are 
the  result  of  years  of  teaching.  The  methods  which  are 
outlined  have  been  tried  with  eminently  satisfactory 
results  in  the  High  School  of  a  manufacturing  city, 
where  pupils  come  from  the  homes  of  working  people, 
largely  of  foreign  extraction,  as  well  as  from  the  homes 
of  the  cultured  and  well  to  do. 

Acknowledgment  of  indebtedness  is  due  to  Messrs. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company  for  permission  to  use  pas- 
sages from  Holmes,  Longfellow,  Thoreau,  Poe,  Emerson, 
Bryant,  and  Whittier;  to  Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company 
for  the  use  of  quotations  from  Gage's  Introduction  to 
Physical  Science;  to  Messrs.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons  for 
selections  from  Stevenson  and  a  passage  from  John  C. 
Van  Dyke's  Nature  for  Its  Own  Sake;  and  to  Scott, 
Foresman,  and  Company,  for  the  paragraphs  from  The 
Story  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Greek  Gods,  Heroes  and 
Men,  by  S.  H.  and  S.  B.  Harding;  also  to  Messrs.  Scott 
and  Southworth  for  the  use  of  the  s-form  from  their 
Lessons  in  English, 

To  Mr.  James  D.  Home,  Master  of  the  Lawrence 
High  School,  Miss  Susana  T.  O'Connor  of  the  English 
Department  of  that  school,  Miss  Gertrude  M.  Hall  of 
the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  of  Boston,  and  other 
teachers,  I  am  deeply  grateful  for  the  loyal  support 
which  has  made  possible  the  carrying  out  of  my  theories  j 


▼i  PREFACE 

as  also  to  Miss  Leila  M.  Lamprey,  Supervisor  of  Primary 
Grades  in  Lawrence,  for  reading  proof,  and  to  Dean 
Hurlburt  of  Harvard  College  and  Professor  Lindsay 
Todd  Damon  of  Brown  University  for  help  and  encour- 
agement in  the  initial  stages  of  the  book.  No  words 
can  adequately  express  my  gratitude  to  Professor  Frank 
Edgar  Farley  of  Simmons  College  for  guidance  in  pre- 
paring the  manuscript  and  for  untold  favors  besides. 

A.  B.  M. 
Lawrence,  May,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Preface iii-vi 

Exposition  op  Method xi-xxv 

PART  I:  EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  SHORT  THEME. 

Lesson  I.    Preliminaries 1-5 

Lesson         II.    Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas        6-8 

Lesson  III.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas 
BY  Means  op  Distinguishing  Marks 
IN  Sentences 9-14 

Lesson        IV.    Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas 

BY  Means  op  Length  op  Sentence  .       15-19 

Lesson  V.    Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas 

BY  Means  op  Punctuation   .     .     .      20-25 

Lesson        VI.    Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas 

BY  Means  op  Punctuation   .     .     .      26-32 

Lesson       VII.    Clearness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas 

BY  Means  op  Capitals     ....      33-37 

Lessdn  VIII.  Correct  Use  op  Words  in  the  Expres- 
sion OP  Ideas 38-42 

Lesson  IX.  Correct  Use  op  Words  in  the  Expres- 
sion OP  Ideas 43-45 

Lesson         X.    Choice  op  Words  in  the  Expression  op 

Ideas 46-^51 

Lesson        XI.    Variety  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas  .      62-57 

Lesson      XII.    Vividness  in  the  Expression  op  Ideas       68-63 

Lesson     XIII.    Review  Exercises  in  the  Expression 

OF  Ideas 64-69 

Lesson  XIV.  More  Review  Exercises  in  the  Ex- 
pression OF  Ideas 70-77 

Lesson  XV.  The  Correct  Use  op  the  Parts  of 
Speech  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

Verbs ,     .      78-84 

Y4 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

rACING 
PAGB 

The  Angel  with  the  Lute.    Carpaccio      .     .         Frontispiece 

Abraham  Lincohi  (in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago).    St.  Gavdens    .  10 

King  Charles.     Van  Dyck 36 

The  Gipsy.    Franz  Hals 36 

Dignity  and  Impudence.    Landseer 61 

Weil-Bred  Sitters.    Landseer 61 

At  the  Edge  of  the  i^ond  (Methuen,  Mass.)        80 

The  Lake.    Corot 81 

Sir  Galahad.    Watts 106 

Prince  Balthasar,  Carlos.    Velasqmz 112 

Laden  with  Snow  (Methuen,  Mass.) 166 

Durham  Cathedral  (England) 167 

Dance  of  the  Children.    Corot 176 

Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Sicily) 104 


EXPOSITION   OF  METHOD 

I.    Purpose  of  the  Exposition:  Plan  of  the  Book. 

The  Lessons  contained  in  Foundation  English  are 
frankly,  exercises,  meant  for  the  pupils  only.  In  this 
part  of  the  book,  therefore,  are  put  such  explanations 
as  may  be  necessary  to  aid  the  teacher  in  the  proper 
development  of  the  somewhat  bald  Lessons. 

The  book  is  divided  into  four  parts,  as  follows: — 
Part  I.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  the  Short  Theme. 
Part  II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Formal  Correspondence. 
Part  III.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  the  Long  Theme 
and  the  Familiar  Letter. 

Appendixes. 

A.  A  Brief  Review  of  Grammar. 

B.  Rules  for  Punctuation  and  Capitalization. 

C.  Rules  for  Spelling. 

D.  Themes  Written  by  Pupils. 
Subjects  for  Short  Themes. 
Symbols  for  Marking  Themes. 

It  will  be  noted  that  instead  of  taking  up  a  subject 
by  chapters,  the  work  is  divided  into  specific  Lessons, 
so  that  a  teacher  may,  if  she  chooses,  follow  the  book 
exactly  as  it  is  laid  out.  For  the  benefit,  however,  of 
the  teacher  who  prefers  to  make  her  own  division  of 
work,  summaries  are  placed  at  the  end  of  each  Part, 
and  she  may  choose  the  exercises  for  practice  and  com- 
position as  she  would  from  any  rhetoric. 


xii  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

II.    The  Aim  of  the  Lessons. 

The  Lessons  aim  at  the  expression  of  ideas,  such 
expression  to  be  gained  by  means  of  oral  and  written 
exercises  and  compositions.  The  pupils  are  to  learn 
by  doing,  and  yet  the  doing  is  to  be  wisely  guided  by 
the  teacher.  To  further  this  manifest  aim,  each  Lesson 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  as  follows: — 

I.  The  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of  some 
principle  of  rhetoric  or  grammar,  which  needs  eluci- 
dation and  practice  in  order  to  break  the  pupil  of 
his  bad  habits  and  to  keep  him  from  falling  into 
new  error. 

II.  The  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of  written 
and  oral  composition,  in  order  to  gain  the  spon- 
taneity and  ease  which  comes  from  much  writing 
and  speaking. 

The  rules  in  the  first  part  of  each  Lesson  are  made 
to  suit  certain  deductions  drawn  from  the  pupils'  own 
work.  Natural  as  self-expression  may  be,  and  necessary 
as  it  is  to  encourage  it,  correct  usages  cannot  be  expected 
from  pupils  who  are  constantly  brought  into  contact 
with  incorrect  usages,  in  playground,  street,  or  home. 
The  rules,  therefore,  are  not  new  and  abstract,  put  there 
for  the  sake  of  covering  so  much  ground  in  grammar  or 
rhetoric;  they  are  often-violated  rules,  put  there  for 
the  sake  of  overcoming  actual  faults  and  strengthening 
the  mind  for  further  endeavor.  Many  a  fault  of  the 
first  year  may  be  ignored,  for  the  reason  that  it  will 
disappear,  not  necessarily  because  of  the  teaching,  but 
because  of  the  added  maturity  of  the  pupil  and  his  wider 
contact  with  books  and  people.    The  labor  of  the  teacher 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD  xiii 

then  is  the  very  definite  one  of  laying  the  foundation, 
and  the  book  aims  to  aid  her  to  do  this  vital  and  sub- 
stantial work. 

III.     The  Idea  of  the  Lessons, 

The  practice  followed  in  certain  first-year  Latin  books, 
where  the  work  proceeds  definitely  and  logically  from 
day  to  day,  suggested  the  dividing  of  the  book  into 
Lessons.  As  far  as  has  been  possible  by  use  of  black- 
board and  type-written  papers  and  without  textbooks, 
this  plan  has  been  followed  out  with  some  first-year 
classes,  and  the  results  have  been  eminently  gratifying. 
With  the  exercises  gathered  into  a  book  of  this  kind, 
infinitely  better  results  ought  to  be  gained. 

At  a  cursory  view,  some  of  the  Lessons  may  seem 
long.  It  is  not  designed,  however,  that  everything 
in  a  Lesson  shall  be  taught.  It  should  be  remembered 
on  the  contrary,  that  most  of  the  rules  used  have  been 
taught  in  the  elementary  schools,  that  what  the  pupils 
need  is  the  practice  which  makes  perfect,  and  that 
accordingly  little  time  will  need  to  be  spent  on  the  rule 
itself.  Plenty  of  exercises  are  included  for  the  sake  of 
variety,  or  for  maturer  or  better  prepared  classes,  or 
to  supply  home-work  if  desired.  Moreover,  the  teacher 
herself  grows  weary  of  the  same  old  exercise.  If  she 
has  had  time  this  term  for  Exercise  1  only,  she  may  like 
the  next  term  to  use  Exercise  2  for  a  change.  Or,  one 
exercise  may  make  a  better  appeal  to  her  now  than  at 
another  time.  It  will  be  noted  furthermore  that  the 
Lessons  increase  in  length  as  the  term  goes  on, — and 
this  for  the  very  reason  that  one  cannot  be  so  definitely 
sure  as  to  the  amoimt  of  work  a  well-grounded   class 


adv  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

will  be  able  to  do  later  on.  At  first  it  was  intended  to 
mark  the  exercises  in  such  a  way  that  there  could  be 
no  mistake  on  this  point,  but  it  was  finally  decided  to 
omit  all  such  foot-notes  as  being  confusing,  and  to  leave 
the  matter  of  choice  to  the  teacher's  own  judgment. 

IV.  The  Purpose  and  Content  of  Each  of  the  Parts, 

Part  I.    The  Short  Theme. 

The  real  though  disguised  aim  of  Part  I  is  to  teach 
the  pupils  to  express  their  ideas  spontaneously,  though 
at  the  same  time  clearly  and  correctly,  in  the  theme  of 
one  paragraph.  The  teacher  should  bear  this  purpose 
in  mind,  therefore,  when  she  is  assigning  a  subject,  and 
should  guide  the  pupils  to  gather  their  ideas  on  that 
subject  into  one  paragraph,  though  she  need  do  nothing 
further  about  paragraph  form  until  she  reaches  Part  III. 
In  Part  I,  also,  some  attempt  is  made  to  get  clear  sen- 
tences; practice  is  given  in  punctuation  and  capitaliza- 
tion; the  vocabulary  is  enlarged;  and  violations  of  gram- 
matical rules  are  corrected. 

Part  II.     Formal  Correspondence. 

The  teaching  of  business  correspondence  cannot  be 
made  very  simple.  The  letters  must  be  business-like, 
an  exercise  of  soul  that  does  not  usually  belong  inher- 
ently to  the  pupils  in  first-year  classes.  But  the  form 
of  the  business  letter,  the  habit  of  neatness,  the  elements 
of  courtesy,  the  addressing  of  the  envelope,  may  well 
receive  attention  this  first  year.  Not  too  much  should 
be  expected  of  the  body  of  the  letter,  however.  Maturity, 
the  stress  of  real  business  needs,  utihty,  will  all  help 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD  xv 

the  boy,  as  he  grows  into  manhood,  to  express  himself 
in  terms  that  will  be  to  his  best  advantage.  Acknowl- 
edged standards  in  forms  he  must  know,  and  can  easily 
be  taught  to  follow.  Aside  from  these,  the  teaching 
of  the  business  letter  will  require  patience  and  not  too 
much  time. 

Part  III.    The  Long  Theme. 

In  Part  III,  the  more  formal  work  of  paragraph  form 
and  content  is  taken  up,  both  as  a  unit,  and  as  a  part  of 
the  longer  theme.  The  first  few  Lessons  of  this  part 
are  designed  to  develop  synthetically  the  transition 
from  the  "short''  theme,  or  the  theme  of  one  paragraph, 
to  the  "long"  theme,  or  the  theme  of  more  than  one 
paragraph.  For  example,  the  teacher  herself  may  have 
in  mind  the  subject,  "A  Rainy  Day  at  the  Old  Farm 
House".  Instead  of  assigning  this  subject  to  her  class, 
however,  she  gives  a  topic  which  represents  only  one 
phase  of  the  subject,  "The  jolly  party  that  rainy  day 
at  the  old  farm-house".  The  pupils  write  a  paragraph- 
theme  on  the  subject,  it  is  corrected  and  passed  back. 
At  the  next  lesson  she  gives  them  the  topic,  "Nooks 
and  corners  explored  in  the  old  farm-house  that  rainy 
day".  Again  a  paragraph  is  written  and  corrected. 
Then,  perhaps,  a  third  time,  she  gives  a  topic,  "A  frolic 
in  the  garret  that  rainy  day  in  the  old  farm-house". 

By  this  time  the  pupil  will  have  perceived  that  he 
has  written  three  paragraphs  about  a  rainy  day  at  the 
old  farm-house.  He  will  need  now,  in  combining  these 
paragraphs  into  one  theme,  to  be  shown  only  how  to 
make  his  transitional  phrase  or  sentence.  Having  seen 
this  point  clearly  he  may  be  taught  the  more  analytic 


xvi  EXPOSITION  OP  METHOD 

work  of  separating  a  subject  into  its  various  parts  or 
topics,  these  topics  to  be  arranged  to  form  a  simple 
outline  for  his  theme.  Such  an  outline  in  this  first  year 
should  carefully  avoid  any  such  division  as>  "introduc- 
tion, discussion,  conclusion". 

In  Part  III  also  is  continued  the  practice  in  short- 
theme  writing,  for  necessarily  the  longer  themes  will 
be  written  out  of  class  and  at  less  frequent  intervals. 
The  familiar  letter  is  also  placed  in  this  part,  because 
it  has  much  the  nature  of  the  long  theme,  that  is,  the 
theme  of  several  paragraphs. 

Appendix  A. — A  Brief  Review  of  Grammar. 

Some  teachers,  especially  since  the  instalment  of  the 
College  Board  of  Examiners,  like  to  include  formal 
grammar  in  the  course  for  the  first  year.  For  such 
teachers,  as  also  for  reference,  a  grammatical  appendix 
has  been  included  in  the  book.  There  are  some  strong 
objections  to  formal  grammar  study  in  the  first  year 
except  as  it  comes  in  written  practice: — 

1.  Grammar  has  already  been  carefully  taught  by 
experienced  teachers  in  the  grammar  schools.  Why 
should  it  be  reviewed  now  any  more  than  arithmetic? 

2.  If  certain  rules  and  definitions  have  been  well- 
taught  in  the  grammar  schools,  it  is  tiresome  and  unnec- 
essary to  undertake  a  new  phraseology,  until  at  least 
the  old  has  been  forgotten, — ^if  indeed  such  a  thing 
can  be. 

3.  It  is  not  only  discouraging  and  disappointing  to 
the  pupils  to  find  that  in  their  new  school  they  must 
go  over  the  same  old  dreary  routine  of  parsing  and 
analyzing,  but  it  also  takes  up    time  that    could    be 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD  JtVli 

given    more  profitably  to  practice,   which  in  the  last 
analysis  is  the  only  thing  that  makes  perfect. 

4.  By  the  third  year,  the  pupils  who  remain  in  school, 
possibly  less  than  half  of  those  who  entered,  will  have 
discovered  whether  their  aspirations  for  college  or 
normal  school  are  likely  to  be  realized.  They  will  then 
see  some  practical  advantage  in  taking  up  the  study 
of  formal  grammar  at  this  time.  Moreover,  their  pre- 
vious study  of  foreign  languages,  and  their  added  matu- 
rity and  growing  reason,  will  enable  them  to  tackle 
the  subject  with  renewed  vigor  and  perspicuity. 

5.  If  it  be  asked,  why,  having  decided  to  include  a 
grammatical  outline,  it  should  be  banished  to  the  Ap- 
pendix, the  answer  is,  first, — for  the  sake  of  the  majority 
of  teachers  who  would  not  care  to  see  it  earlier;  and, 
second  and  more  important, — because  the  secondary 
title  of  the  book,  which  is  really  a  definition  of  terms, 
"The  Expression  of  Ideas,''  makes  the  Appendix  the 
logical  place  for  an  outline  of  technical  grammar. 

Appendix  B. — Punctuation  and  Capitalization. 

During  the  course  of  the  Lessons,  exercises  for  prac- 
tice in  punctuation  and  capitalization  are  given.  Here 
again  the  rules  are  banished  to  the  Appendix,  and  this 
for  two  reasons: — 

1.  Rules  for  many  of  these  usages  have  already  been 
taught  in  the  grammar  schools.  If  they  have  been 
carefully  taught,  it  would  be  idle  to  change  the  phrase- 
ology. The  rules  are  needed  only  for  reference  in 
correcting  or  punctuating  themes.  In  an  Appendix  they 
may  be  all  gathered  together  and  their  changed  form 
will  give  no  trouble. 


XViii  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

2.  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what 
and  how  many  rules  should  be  taught.  With  the  rules 
gathered  in  an  Appendix,  the  teacher  is  not  bound  by 
any  dogmatic  limits. 

Appendix  C. — Spelling. 

At  first  it  was  intended  to  include  in  an  Appendix 
words  usually  misspelled.  Such  a  list,  however,  if 
at  all  adequate,  would  take  too  much  space  in  a 
book  like  this.  Instead,  therefore,  the  teacher  is  ad- 
vised to  use  a  speUing-book. 

In  Appendix  C,  however,  have  been  included  a  few 
rules  for  speUing  such  English  words  as  conform  to  rule. 
A  record  of  words  misspelled  in  the  written  work  of  the 
teacher's  own  classes  should  be  kept,  and  the  words 
studied  in  constant  review.  It  should  be  taken  into 
consideration,  furthermore,  that  young  people  learn  by 
eye  and  by  ear.  Accordingly,  both  oral  and  written 
spelling  should  be  given;  one,  to  present  a  picture  to 
the  eye;  the  other,  to  present  a  sound  to  the  ear.  The 
habit  of  seeing,  the  habit  of  hearing,  should  be  auxil- 
iaries to  the  teacher. 

Appendix  D. — Illustrative  Themes.    Subjects  for 
Short  Themes.    Symbols  for  Marking  Themes. 

The  themes  included  in  Appendix  D  were  chosen  some- 
what at  random  from  a  number  written  by  the  pupils  of 
a  first-year  class.  They  serve  here  the  double  purpose 
of  showing  the  curious  teacher  what  may  be  done  in  the 
way  of  imitiation,  and  of  interesting  pupils  in  the  work 
of  their  peers.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  at  the  same 
time  that  the  teacher's  part  of  the  work  was  done  under 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD  xix 

much  more  trying  circumstances  than  would  be  possible 
with  such  a  book  as  this  at  hand. 

Each  Lesson  in  the  book  has  included  a  number  of 
subjects  for  composition;  a  supplementary  Hst  is  added 
for  further  suggestions  and  in  case  of  a  ^ 'daily''  theme 
course. 

The  symbols  given  for  marking  themes  may  not  be 
those  used  by  all  teachers,  but  they  are  in  general  use, 
and  may  be  found  convenient  for  reference. 

V.  The  Use  of  Specimens, 

We  are  all  born  imitators,  though  we  may  not  like 
to  confess  it  as  we  grow  older.  ''Show  us  how,"  say 
the  pupils;  "Now  let  me  do  it,"  and  they  do  it,  often 
with  a  grace  entirely  their  own.  In  writing  compositions, 
as  in  playing  a  game  or  using  a  tool,  they  need  to  see 
how  others  do  it.  Since  the  work  of  their  peers  is 
unfortunately  not  often  worthy  of  imitation,  their  models 
must  be  taken  from  the  standard  writers.  In  each 
Lesson  of  the  book  such  specimens  have  been  included, 
and  they  have  been  chosen  not  for  any  elusive  beauty 
of  style,  but  because  their  workmanship  is  rather  appar- 
ent, and  therefore  easier  to  imitate.  It  is  not  meant 
that  they  shall  be  "aped  sedulously";  often  the  imita- 
tion may  consist  merely  in  the  use  of  some  of  the  words, 
or  in  the  development  of  a  similar  thought,  or  in  the 
suggestion  of  a  subject.  Imitation  of  style  may  be 
unconscious.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  subjects  chosen 
for  composition  in  each  Lesson  are  suggested  by  the 
model;  the  class  discussions  ought  to  keep  the  imitation 
within  proper  Hmits.  Says  Bruneti^re,  "If  we  are 
unwilling  to  imitate  or  follow  anybody,  life  will  be  over 


XX  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

before  we  can  get  to  work;  men  are  forever  imitating, 
but  they  cannot  imitate  without  change." 

VI.  The  Oral  Theme. 

Appended  to  each  of  the  first  twenty  Lessons  is  a 
subject  for  oral  composition.  This  exercise  may  be 
given  at  any  time,  on  the  day  devoted  to  the  study  of 
literature  as  well  as  on  the  day  given  to  the  regular 
work  in  composition.  After  the  twentieth  Lesson  no 
subjects  are  given  for  oral  compositions  as  such.  By 
this  time  the  pupils  should  be  quite  accustomed  to 
speaking  before  their  class.  The  speaking  should  con- 
tinue, but  the  subjects  may  be  chosen  from  the  work 
in  literature,  from  the  current  news,  from  the  pupils' 
own  experiences.  Ten  minutes  at  the  beginning  of  a 
period  should  be  enough  time  to  devote  to  this  partic- 
ular form  of  oral  composition.  One-minute,  two-minute, 
or  three-minute  speeches  will  accomplish  wonders  if 
faithfully  followed  up. 

VII.  The  Distribution  of  Time, 

The  book  is  planned  for  the  ideal  program  of  five 
periods  a  week  for  a  term  of  thirty-eight  or  forty  weeks. 
In  this  case,  of  the  five  periods  two  would  be  devoted 
to  the  definite  work  of  the  expression  of  ideas,  three 
to  the  work  in  literature;  that  is,  the  work  of  one  Lesson 
of  Foundation  English  would  occupy  two  periods.  But 
suppose  the  term  should  not  be  so  long,  or  the  periods 
devoted  to  instruction  in  EngUsh  so  many? 

1.  In  case  of  the  shorter  length  of  time:  There  are 
several  ways  in  which  the  Lessons  could  be  made  to 
fit.    Part  III,  for  example,  could  be  saved  in  part  or 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD  xxi 

in  whole  for  the  next  year.  Or,  Part  II  could  be  omitted 
and  taken  up  in  later  years.  Or,  especially  in  the  case 
of  well-prepared  classes,  Part  I  could  be  condensed: 
the  lessons  in  punctuation  or  in  grammar,  as  actual 
lessons,  could  be  omitted. 

2.  In  case  of  fewer  periods  per  week:  Two  periods 
should  be  devoted  to  the  work  in  composition,  whether 
the  periods  devoted  to  the  study  of  English  number 
five,  four,  three,  or  two.  In  the  last  case,  the  literary 
models  used  in  the  Lessons  would  convey  their  message 
perhaps  unconsciously  as  lessons  in  literature.  Sup- 
plementary outside  reading  could  be  added  if  desired. 
At  any  rate  the  heaviest  work  in  the  expression  of 
ideas  should  be  done  in  these  earlier  years,  before  the 
pupils  get  set  in  their  ways,  habitually  careless,  or 
self-conscious  in  their  attitude  toward  their  work.  It 
is  discouraging  indeed  to  find  the  themes  of  the  senior 
year  failing  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  compo- 
sition; not  only  discouraging  but  well-nigh  hopeless. 
In  this  last  year,  the  time  should  be  left  almost  wholly 
free  for  the  development  of  the  larger  principles  of  rhet- 
oric, and  the  forms  of  discourse  as  actual  forms  should 
be  built  on  foimdations  already  laid. 

VIII.  The  Distribution  of  the  Lesson, 

During  the  first  of  the  year,  or  at  least  until  the  teacher 
becomes  well  acquainted  with  her  pupils,  the  theme 
should  be  written  in  class,  as  often  as  once  a  week,  and 
corrected  as  often.  One  set  of  themes  a  day  ought  not 
to  be  too  many  for  a  teacher  to  examine,  if  she  looks 
only  for  those  violations  of  the  rule  which  she  happens 
to  be  working  upon  at  that  particular  time,  or  those 


xxii  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

which  she  has  worked  upon  in  previous  themes.  The 
pupils  should  not  be  confused  by  a  multitude  of  correc- 
tions, many  of  which,  even  at  best,  they  are  incapable 
of  absorbing.  Red  ink  used  merely  to  satisfy  a  teacher's 
conscience  will  not  help  the  pupils  to  overcome  their 
faults. 

Some  sort  of  a  rotating  system  will  keep  the  teacher 
from  being  unnecessarily  swamped  with  themes  to  be 
corrected.  The  schedule  on  page  xxiii  is  a  suggestion.  It 
provides  for  a  suppositious  program  of  five  classes  of 
twenty-four  pupils  each,  and  five  periods  of  English  a 
week.  Two  of  these  periods  will  be  devoted  to  the 
work  in  composition,  one  to  the  regular  Lesson  in  the 
book,  the  other  to  studying  or  writing.  During  this 
second  period  a  fourth  of  the  class  will  receive  individual 
help  in  private  conference.  The  classes  are  called 
suppositiously.  A,  B,  C,  D,  E.  The  conference  sections 
AS  AS  AS  AS  BS  etc. 

IX.  Distribution  of  Time  for  the  Long  Theme. 

When  this  form  of  theme-work,  the  "long  theme," 
is  in  full  swing,  the  teacher  will  find  herself  not  able 
to  correct  a  whole  set  of  themes  as  often  as  once  a  week. 
Once  a  month  will  be  perhaps  all  that  she  can  manage. 
She  will  now  need  to  have  some  rotating  system  so  that 
each  pupil  may  have  his  full  quota  of  work  and  so  that 
she  herself  will  not  be  overwhelmed  by  themes  to  be 
corrected.  A  few  themes  from  each  class  each  week 
will  keep  the  whole  class  interested  besides  giving  the 
teacher  each  week  something  by  which  to  illustrate 
the  work  of  the  class. 

She  may,  then,  post  somewhere  in  full  view  of  the 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 


XXIU 


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Periods. 


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DDdv  EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 

pupils  some  such  scheme  as  the  following: — The  classes 
should  be  divided  as  before  into  four  sections,  and 
numbered  AS  A^,  A^  A*,  B^  B^,  and  so  on.  Each 
one  of  these  divisions  should  have  some  stated  work  at 
some  stated  date.  In  the  outline  that  follows,  dates 
for  one  class  and  two  compositions  are  given.  The 
date  for  the  second  composition  might  be  inserted  in 
red  ink  to  attract  attention.  Separate  schedules  would 
have  to  be  made  for  each  class,  unless  all  classes  were 
having  compositions  on  the  same  day.  This  schedule 
presupposes  the  class  to  be  ready  to  write  long  themes 
in  March. 


EXPOSITION  OF  METHOD 
SCHEDULE  II,  FOR  CLASS  A. 


xxv 


Names  of  Pupils. 

Plan. 

Theme. 

Conference. 

Rewritten. 

A* 

Mon. 

March  7 
AprU4 

March  14 
April  11 

March  21 
AprU  18 

March  28 
AprU  25 

A« 

Mon. 

March  14 
April  11 

March  21 
April  18 

March  28 
April  25 

AprU  4 
May  2 

A» 

Mon. 

1 

March  21 
April  18 

March  28 
April  26 

AprU  4 
May  2 

r." 

A« 

Mon. 

March  28 
AprU25 

April  4 
May  2 

April  11 
Mays 

AprU  18 
May  Id 

PART  I. 

EXPRESSION    OF    IDEAS  IN    THE   SHORT 
THEME 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


PART  I 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  SHORT  THEME 

LESSON  I 

I.  Preliminaries  for  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 
1.  Where  may  we  gain  these  ideas? 

(1)  By  observation  of  the  world  about  us.  The 
things  which  we  see  and  hear  and  do,  these  offer  the  most 
real  and  vital  ideas,  because  they  come  within  our 
experience.  They  offer  the  facts  of  Hfe.  The  great 
teacher,  Horace  Mann,  once  wrote  to  his  sister,  who 
was  complaining  that  she  had  nothing  to  write  about, 
"The  whole  world  is  before  you  and  offers  itself  for 
your  selection."  "Make  the  most  of  this  beautiful 
star — the  earth,"  says  Leigh  Hunt. 

(2)  By  imagination.  Building  upon  fact  we  may 
create  an  edifice  of  fancy.  In  other  words  we  may 
"make  up"  ideas  about  things;  we  may  "build  a  bridge 
to  dreamland  for  our  lay." 

(3)  By  suggestion.  The  open  heart  and  the  recep- 
tive mind  will  never  lack  ideas.  They  may  be  sug- 
gested to  us  by  what  other  people  have  written  or  said,  by 
conversing  with  others,  or  by  listening  to  conversations. 

1 


2  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

2.  How  may  we  express  these  ideas? 

(1)  By  the  medium  of  language  either  written  or 
spoken.  Language  consists  primarily  of  words.  A 
word  is  the  spoken  or  written  sign  of  an  idea.  When 
we  put  two  or  more  words  together,  we  make  a  Com- 
position. For  example,  the  word  "birds''  represents 
an  idea,  so  does  the  word  "sing."  When  we  put  the 
two  words  together,  we  make  a  composition,  and  ex- 
press a  new  idea  that  "Birds  sing."  Composition^  is 
the  putting  together  of  ideas  expressed  in  words. 

The  sum  or  stock  of  words  which  we  have  at  our  com- 
mand we  call  our  Vocabulary.  It  can  be  easily  seen 
that  if  we  are  to  gain  ideas  by  observation,  imagina- 
tion, and  suggestion,  we  shall  need  a  large  and  varied 
and  forcible  vocabulary  in  which  to  express  them. 

The  Lessons  in  this  book  will  help  us  thus  to  express 
ourselves.  Each  Lesson  will  take  up  first  an  essential 
rule  of  composition  with  exercises  for  practice;  and 
second,  written  or  spoken  expression  of  ideas  embodied 
in  so-called  Compositions. 

(2)  The  form  of  Composition. 

In  the  sense  in  which  the  term  composition  is  used 
in  this  book,  we  mean  our  ideas  on  a  certain  subject 
put  together,  and  either  spoken  before  the  class,  or 
written  on  paper  and  handed  to  the  teacher  for  inspection. 
Sometimes  for  convenience  we  call  such  written  com- 
positions, *Hhemes.'^ 

The  oral  compositions,  for  a  time  at  least,  will  con- 
sist largely  in  reproducing  other  people's  ideas,  because 
the  time  which  we  can  devote  to  such  work  is  so  short 

>  Expressions  in  bold  face  type  should  be  committed  to  memoiy. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  MANUSCRIPT  3 

and  the  supervision  so  scanty.  The  work  in  literature 
will  help  greatly  in  the  oral  expression  of  ideas.  More- 
over, whatever  helps  in  written  expression  will  help 
also  in  oral  expression. 

The  written  compositions  for  the  first  part  of  the 
year  will  be  short,  so  that  we  may  have  more  time  to 
devote  to  the  essentials  of  correct  speech  and  the  gaining 
of  a  vocabulary.  When  we  have  become  somewhat 
skilled  in  writing  the  short  theme,  we  shall  try  to  express 
our  ideas  at  greater  length,  in  "long"  themes. 

(3)  The  Preparation  of  the  Manuscript. 

Every  written  composition  should  be  spelled  care- 
fully, and  written  legibly  and  according  to  a  certain 
form.  The  copy  of  the  paper  thus  prepared  we  will 
call  the  manuscript. 

Following  are  directions  for  preparing  the  manuscript 
for  schools: — 

Margin.  Leave  about  an  inch  in  width  at  the  left 
of  the  paper.  Bring  the  writing  out  evenly  at  the  right 
of  the  paper.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only,  unless 
instructed  to  do  otherwise. 

Title.  The  title  is  the  name  of  the  theme.  Write 
the  title  so  that  it  will  occupy  the  middle  of  the  first 
line  of  the  first  paper.  Do  not  repeat  it  on  other  papers. 
In  writing  the  title,  do  one  of  two  things: — either  begin 
only  the  first  word  and  proper  nouns  with  capitals;  or 
else  begin  with  a  capital  all  words  except  prepositions 
conjunctions,  and  articles;  for  example. 

The  principle  of  the  Argand  lamp. 

or 
The  Principle  of  the  Argand  Lamp. 


4  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Leave  a  space  between  the  title  and  the  first  line  of 
the  composition. 

Indentation.  Indent  the  first  line  of  every  para- 
graph about  the  width  of  the  margin. 

On  the  final  manuscript^  write  legibly,  have  no  blots 
and  no  ^'patchwork."     Number  the  pages. 

Folding  the  manuscript.  Place  the  corners  evenly 
together  from  left  to  right,  with  the  writing  inside; 
hold  the  corners  firmly  and  press  the  fold. 

Endorsement.  Endorse  neatly.  When  the  paper  is 
to  be  handed  in  flat,  endorse  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner^;  when  it  is  to  be  handed  in  folded,  endorse  in 
the  upper  part  on  the  outside.^ 

Form  of  endorsement.^ 

Orville  Horricks, 
Eng.  I,  Sect.  A, 
Sept.  9,  1920. 
Theme  1. 

Orville  Horricks, 
Eng.  I,  Sect.  A, 
Sept.  10,  1920. 
Rewritten  theme  1. 

^To  allow  room  for  mark  or  criticism  of  teacher  at  the  right. 

2The  teacher  may  determine  for  her  own  convenience  on  which 
side  of  the  outside  to  endorse. 

^Unifonnity  in  the  form  of  endorsement  should  be  required.  The 
fonn  given  above  is  as  good  as  any,  and  is  the  form  used  rather  com- 
monly  in  schools  and  colleges. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITION  6 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects  and  write  a  theme, 
about  a  page  in  length,  which  shall  express  your  ideas 
on  the  subject  gained  by  experience.^ 

1.  My  favorite  sport.  (Name  it.  What  materials 
are  necessary?     How  is  it  played?) 

2.  The  last  school  I  attended.  (The  name,  the 
teacher,  what  I  studied,  what  I  learned.) 

3.  My    first    impressions    of    High    School. 

(The   size   and   appearance   of   the   building.     Strange 
rooms  and  faces.     Spirit  of  the  school.) 

»The  purpose  of  this  theme  is  to  give  the  teacher  an  idea  of  the 
previous  training  of  the  pupil,  and  to  give  practice  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  manuscript. 


LESSON  II 

I.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  Clearness  is  a  quality  of  composition  absolutely 
necessary  if  one  wishes  to  keep  from  being  misunder- 
stood. So  essential  a  quality  is  it  that  we  shall  be  many 
weeks  studying  how  best  to  obtain  it. 

2.  Before  we  can  convey  ideas  clearly  we  must  first 
have  clear  ideas.  Clear  ideas  may  be  obtained  by 
careful  observation,  careful  thinking,  careful  study. 

3.  In  order  to  convey  ideas  clearly,  we  must  embody 
them  in  clear  compositions.  The  simplest  form  of 
composition,  a  form  without  which  no  composition  is 
possible,  is  the  sentence.  A  sentence,  in  order  to  convey 
ideas  clearly,  must  express  a  complete  thought  by  means 
of  words  that  are  grammatically  united. 

Exercise.  In  the  following  composition  show  that 
the  thought  is  complete  in  each  sentence  and  that  the 
words  are  grammatically  united: — 

THE  FOX  AND  THE  LION. 

The  first  time  the  Fox  saw  the  Lion,  he  fell  down  at  his  feet,  and 
was  ready  to  die  of  fear.  The  second  time,  he  took  courage  and 
could  even  bear  to  look  upon  him.  The  third  time,  he  had  the 
impudence  to  come  up  to  him,  to  salute  him,  and  to  enter  into  familiar 
conversation  with  him. — ^sop. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  selections  and  notice  the  mental 
images  presented  by  the  author's  expression  of  ideas : — 

6 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  7 

1. 

**We  think  we  have  looked  at  a  thing  sharply  until  we  are  asked 
for  its  speciJ5c  features.  I  thought  I  knew  exactly  the  form  of  the 
leaf  of  the  tulip-tree  until  one  day  a  lady  asked  me  to  draw  the  out- 
lines of  one.  A  good  observer  is  quick  to  take  a  hint  and  to  follow 
it  up.  Most  of  the  facts  of  nature,  especially  in  the  Ufe  of  birds 
and  animals,  are  well  screened.  We  do  not  see  the  play,  because 
we  do  not  look  intently  enough." — Burroughs:  Locusts  and  Wild 
Honey,    Sharp  Eyes. 

2. 

"When  you  come  suddenly  upon  the  porcupine  in  his  native 
haunts,  he  draws  his  head  back  and  down,  puts  up  his  shield,  trails 
his  broad  tail,  and  waddles  slowly  away.  His  shield  is  the  sheaf 
of  larger  quills  upon  his  back,  which  he  opens  and  spreads  out  in 
circular  form  so  that  the  whole  body  is  quite  hidden  beneath  it. 
The  porcupine's  great  chisel-Uke  teeth,  which  are  quite  as  formid- 
able as  those  of  the  woodchuck,  he  does  not  appear  to  use  at  all 
in  his  defence,  but  relies  entirely  upon  his  quills  and  when  these 
fail  him  he  is  done  for." — Burroughs:  Squirrels  and  Other  Fur-Bearen. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  injunction  does  Burroughs  give  us  in  the 
first  composition?  2.  Show  how,  in  the  second  extract, 
he  follows  his  own  injunction.  3.  See  if  you  could  draw 
now  the  shape  of  some  familiar  leaf  so  that  your  teacher 
could  recognize  it.  4.  Notice  that  in  the  second  com- 
position the  author  describes  the  porcupine  as  he  appears 
at  first  sight.  In  the  rest  of  the  sentences  he  describes 
the  various  parts  as  they  appear  on  closer  observation. 
5.  What  picture  is  presented  by  the  use  of  the  words 
"sheaf'  and  "chisel-Uke"?  6.  What  is  the  meaning  of 
the  word  "formidable"? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  any  one  of  the  following: — 1.  How  does  your 
cat  prepare  herself  for  sleep?    2.  How  does  your  cat 


8  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

defend  herself  against  her  enemy,  the  dog?  3.  How 
do  hens  drink  water?  4.  How  does  a  bird  take  its  bath? 
6.  How  does  a  fern  or  a  brake  develop  from  its  first  ap- 
pearance above  ground?  6.  Show  that  a  peacock  is 
very  vain  of  its  fine  feathers.  7.  Why  does  a  cat  have 
whiskers?  8.  Why  has  a  grey-hound,  or  a  pointer  his 
particular  shape?  9.  How  does  a  turkey  gobbler  act 
and  look  when  he  is  thoroughly  angry?  10.  Your  cat 
has  awakened  from  his  nap  and  determined  to  do  some- 
thing.   Watch  him  and  then  write  about  him. 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

Describe  the  picture  given  as  a  frontispiece  so  that  one 
who  had  never  seen  it  could  get  a  clear  idea  of  it.  The 
picture  is  a  detail  from  a  large  picture  of  "The  Presenta- 
tion of  the  Christ  Child  at  the  Temple".  Can  you  see 
any  spiritual  significance  in  the  angel's  face?  What  do 
you  think  is  the  composition  which  he  is  trying  to  play 
on  his  lute? 


LESSON  III 

I.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of 

Distinguishing  Marks  in  Sentences. 

1.  In  a  collection  of  sentences  which  together  make 
up  a  composition,  we  may  readily  distinguish  the  individ- 
ual sentences  by  the  fact  that  each  begins  with  a  capital 
and  ends  with  a  period,  or  an  exclamation  point,  or  an 
interrogation  point.  We  should  not,  however,  mislead 
the  reader  by  placing  these  distinguishing  marks  where 
they  do  not  belong.  The  marks  should  distinguish  a 
complete  thought.  Young  writers  are  inclined  to  do  two 
things, — either  they  begin  a  new  sentence  with  a  small 
letter,  or  else  they  begin  a  part  of  a  sentence  with  a 
capital.  Either  of  these  two  faults  confuses  a  sentence 
and  must  be  avoided  if  the  thought  is  to  be  clear  to  the 
reader. 

Following  are  two  letters  which  are  rather  amusing 
instances  of  how  two  boys  can  differ  in  their  compositions. 
Note  how  much  clearer  the  boy  Washington's  letter  is 
than  the  boy  Lee's.  What  makes  it  clearer?  Do  you 
think  that  the  boy  Lee  had  learned  "his  tasks  as  weW^  as 
the  boy  Washington? 

"Pa  brought  me  two  pretty  books  full  of  pictures  he  got  them  in 
Alexandria  they  have  pictures  of  dogs  and  cats  and  tigers  and  ele- 
fants  and  ever  so  many  pretty  things  cousin  bids  me  send  you  one 
of  them  it  has  a  picture  of  an  elefant  and  a  little  Indian  boy  on  his 
back  hke  uncle  jo's  sam  pa  says  if  I  learn  my  tasks  good  he  will 
let  uncle  jo  bring  me  to  see  you  will  you  ask  your  ma  to  let  you 
come  to  see  me. — Richard  Henry  Lee", 

0 


10  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

To  this  letter  Washington  sent  the  following  reply: — 

"Dear  Dickey  I  thank  you  very  much  for  the  pretty  picture 
book  you  gave  me.  Sam  asked  me  to  show  him  the  pictures  and  I 
showed  him  all  the  pictures  in  it;  and  I  read  to  him  how  the  tame 
Elephant  took  care  of  the  master's  Httle  boy,  and  put  him  on  his 
back  and  would  not  let  anybody  touch  his  master's  Httle  son.  I 
can  read  three  or  four  pages  sometimes  without  missing  a  word. 
Ma  says  I  may  go  to  see  you  and  stay  all  day  with  you  next  week 
if  it  be  not  rainy.  She  says  I  may  ride  my  pony  Hero  if  Uncle  Ben 
will  go  with  me  and  lead  Hero.  I  have  a  little  piece  of  poetry 
about  the  picture  book  you  gave  me,  but  I  mustn't  tell  you  who 
wrote  the  poetry. 

"  'G.  W.'s  compliments  to  R.  H.  L. 
And  Ukes  his  book  full  well, 
Henceforth  will  count  him  his  friend, 
And  hopes  many  happy  days  he  may  spend.' 
"Your  good  friend, 

"George  Washington". 

*T  am  going  to  get  a  whip  top  soon,  and  you  may  see  it  and  whip 
it." — Benson  J.  Lossing:  Mt.  Vernon,  the  House  of  Washington. 

Exercise  1.  Write  six  or  more  sentences  suggested  by 
the  picture  opposite  this  page.  Examine  your  sentences 
to  see  if  the  distinction  between  them  is  made  plainly 
evident. 

Exercise  2.  Rewrite  the  following  composition  and 
put  capitals  and  periods  where  they  belong:— 

At  noon,  our  juvenile  party  assembled  in  a  dell,  through  the 
depths  of  which  ran  a  httle  brook  the  dell  was  narrow,  and  its  steep 
sides,  from  the  margin  of  the  stream  upward,  were  thickly  set 
with  trees,  chiefly  walnuts  and  chestnuts,  among  which  grew  a 
few  oaks  and  maples  in  the  summer  time,  the  shade  of  so  many 
clustering  branches,  meeting  and  intermingling  across  the  rivulet, 
was  deep  enough  to  produce  a  noontide  twilight  hence  came  the 
name  of  Shadow  Brook  but  now,  ever  since  autumn  had  crept  into 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  11 

thifl  secluded  place,  all  the  dark  verdure  was  changed  to  gold,  so 
that  it  really  kindled  up  the  dell,  instead  of  shading  it  the  bright 
yellow  leaves,  even  had  it  been  a  cloudy  day,  would  have  seemed  to 
keep  the  sunlight  among  them;  and  enough  of  them  had  fallen  to 
strew  all  the  bed  and  margin  of  the  brook  with  sunUght,  too  thus 
the  shady  nook,  where  summer  had  cooled  herself,  was  the  sunniest 
spot  anywhere  to  be  found. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions  aloud: — 

1. 

That  sociablest  of  flowers,  the  little  Housatonia,  was  very  abun- 
dant. It  is  a  flower  that  never  Uves  alone,  but  which  loves  its 
own  kind,  and  is  always  fond  of  dwelling  with  a  great  many  friends 
and  relatives  around  it.  Sometimes  you  see  a  family  of  them 
covering  a  space  no  bigger  than  the  palm  of  your  hand;  and  some- 
times a  large  community,  whitening  a  whole  tract  of  pasture,  and 
all  keeping  one  another  in  cheerful  heart  and  life. — Hawthorne: 
A  Wonder  Book  for  Girls  and  Boys. 

2. 

That  near  relative  of  the  kingbird,  the  great  crested  fly-catcher, 
has  one  well  known  peculiarity:  he  appears  never  to  consider  his 
nest  finished  until  it  contains  a  cast-off  snake-skin.  My  alert 
correspondent  one  day  saw  him  eagerly  catch  up  an  onion  skin  and 
make  off  with  it,  either  deceived  by  it  or  else  thinking  it  a  good 
substitute  for  the  coveted  material. — Burroughs:  Locusts  and  WUd 
Honey.    Sharp  Eyes. 

Class  discussion. 

1 .  What  peculiarity  of  the  flower  is  given  in  the  first 
composition?  2.  Of  the  bird,  in  the  second  composition? 
3.  In  each  case  an  illustration  is  given.  How  does  the 
illustration  help  the  composition?  4.  What  expressions 
in  the  first  composition  give  the  flower  a  human  quality? 
6.  What  kind  of  a  correspondent  is  an  "alert"  corres* 
pondent? 


12  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  any  one  from  the  following: — 1.  The  pecu- 
liarity of  some  bird,  or  flower,  or  wild  animal,  which 
you  have  observed  closely.  (Name  and  describe  the 
peculiarity.  Give  an  illustration.)  2.  What  peculiar- 
ity distinguishes  your  fox-terrier  from  your  neighbor's? 
3.  Your  cat  from  one  that  to  an  ordinary  observer 
looks  like  yours?  4.  What  peculiarity  distinguishes  a 
morning  in  June  from  a  morning  in  August,  or  September, 
or  November?  5.  How  may  one  distinguish  between  a 
pine  tree  and  a  spruce  or  cedar?  6.  How  does  a  russet 
apple  differ  from  a  Baldwin  apple?  7.  How  may  one 
distinguish  a  mushroom  from  a  toadstool?  8.  What  is 
the  peculiarity  of  a  cat-boat?  9.  What  pecuHarity 
distinguishes  your  automobile  from  your  neighbor's? 
10.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  chipmunk  and  a 
squirrel? 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

Read  the  following  poem  through  carefully  so  as  to 
be  able  to  tell  the  story  orally  in  clear  prose : — 

THE  WRECK  OF  THE  HESPERUS. 

It  was  the  schooner  Hesperus  that  sail'd  the  wintry  sea; 
And  the  skipper  had  taken  his  little  daughter  to  bear  him  company. 
Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy-flax,  her  cheeks  hke  the  dawn  of  day, 
And  her  bosom  white  as  the  hawthorn  buds  that  ope  in  the  month 
of  May. 

The  skipper  he  stood  beside  the  helm,  his  pipe  was  in  his  mouth, 
And  he  watch' d  how  the  veering  flaw  did  blow  the  smoke  now  west, 

now  south. 
Then  up  and  spake  an  old  sailor, — had  sail'd  the  Spanish  main, — 
*'I  pray  thee,  put  into  yonder  port,  for  I  fear  a  hurricane. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  13 

"Last  night  the  Moon  had  a  golden  ring,  and  tonight  no  Moon 

we  seel" 
The  skipper,  he  blew  a  whifiF  from  his  pipe,  and  a  scornful  laugh 

laugh'd  he. 
Colder  and  louder  blew  the  wind,  a  gale  from  the  northeast; 
The  snow  fell  hissing  in  the  brine,  and  the  billows  froth'd  like  yeast. 

Down  came  the  storm,  and  smote  amain  the  vessel  in  its  strength; 
She  shudder' d  and  paused,  like  a  frighten'd  steed,  then  leap'd  her 

cable's  length. 
"Come  hither!  come  hither!  my  little  daughter,  and  do  not  tremble  so; 
For  I  can  weather  the  roughest  gale,  that  ever  wind  did  blow.'* 

He  wrapp'd  her  warm  in  his  seaman's  coat  against  the  stinging  blast; 
He  cut  a  rope  from  a  broken  spar,  and  bound  her  to  the  mast. 
"O  father!  I  hear  the  church-bells  ring,  O  say,  what  may  it  be?" 
"'Tis  a  fog-bell  on  a  rock-bound  coast!"  and  he  steer'd  for  the 
open  sea. 

*'0  father!  I  hear  the  sound  of  guns,  O  say,  what  may  it  be?" 
''Some  ship  in  distress,  that  cannot  live  in  such  an  angry  seal" 
''O  father!  I  see  a  gleaming  Ught,  O  say,  what  may  it  be?" 
But  the  father  answer'd  never  a  word,  a  frozen  corpse  was  he. 

Lash'd  to  the  helm,  all  stiff  and  stark,  with  his  face  tum'd  to  the 

skies. 
The  lantern  gleam'd  through  the  gleaming  snow  on  his  fix'd  and 

glassy  eyes. 
Then  the  maiden  clasp'd  her  hands  and  pray'd,  that  savdd  she 

might  be; 
And  she  thought  of  Christ,  who  still'd  the  wave  on  the  Lake  of 

Galilee. 

And  fast  thro'  the  midnight  dark  and  drear,  thro'  the  whistling 

sleet  and  snow. 
Like  a  sheeted  ghost,  the  vessel  swept  towards  the  reef  of  Norman's 

Woe. 
And  ever,  the  fitful  gusts  between,  a  sound  came  from  the  land; 
It  was  the  sound  of  the  trampling  surf  on  the  rocks  and  the  hard 

sea-sand. 


U  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

The  breakers  were  right  beneath  her  bows,  she  drifted  a  dreary 

wreck, 
And  a  whooping  billow  swept  the  crew  like  icicles  from  her  deck. 
She  struck  where  the  white  and  fleecy  waves  look'd  soft  as  carded 

wool, 
But  the  cruel  rocks,  they  gored  her  side  like  the  horns  of  an  angry 

buU. 

Her  rattling  shrouds,  all  sheath'd  in  ice,  with  the  masts  went  by 

the  board; 
Like  a  vessel  of  glass,  she  stove  and  sank.    Ho!  hoi  the  breakers 

roar'dl 
At  daybreak,  on  the  bleak  sea-beach,  a  fisherman  stood  aghast, 
To  see  the  form  of  a  maiden  fair  lash'd  close  to  a  drifting  mast. 

The  salt  sea  was  frozen  on  her  breast,  the  salt  tears  in  her  eyes; 
And  he  saw  her  hair,  like  the  brown  sea-weed,  on  the  billows  fall 

and  rise. 
Such  was  the  wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  in  the  midnight  and  the  snow! 
Christ  save  us  all  from  a  death  like  this,  on  the  reef  of  Norman's 

Woe! 

—LongfeUow, 


LESSON  IV 

I.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of 
Length  of  Sentence. 

1.  The  sentences  of  a  composition  should  not  be  too 
long  or  too  short.  They  should  express  the  complete 
thought;  nothing  more,  nothing  less. 

Exercise  1.  The  first  of  the  compositions  that  follow 
gives  an  example  of  long  sentences,  the  second,  of  short 
sentences.  Only  skilful  writers  could  use  such  sentences 
successfully.  Read  the  sentences  carefully,  and  decide 
for  yourselves  what  makes  them  clear  in  spite  of  their 
length. 

The  Americana  will  have  no  interest  contrary  to  the  grandeur 
and  glory  of  England,  when  they  are  not  oppressed  by  the  weight 
of  it;  and  they  will  rather  be  inclined  to  resp  ect  the  acts  of  a  supei^ 
intending  legislature,  when  they  see  them  the  acts  of  that  power 
which  is  itself  the  security,  not  the  rival,  of  their  secondary  impor* 
tance.  In  this  assurance  my  mind  most  perfectly  acquiesces; 
and  I  confess  I  feel  not  the  least  alarm  from  the  discontents  which 
are  to  arise  from  putting  people  at  their  ease;  nor  do  I  apprehend 
the  destruction  of  this  empire  from  g  iving,  by  an  act  of  free  grace 
and  indulgence,  to  two  millions  of  my  fellow-citizens,  some  share 
of  those  rights  upon  which  I  have  always  been  taught  to  value 
myself. — Burke:  Conciliation  toith  America, 

2. 

THE  ALTERNATIVE 

The  battle,  sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone.  It  is  to  the  vigilant, 
the  active,  the  brave.     Besides,  sir,  we  have  no  election.    If  we 

15 


16  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

were  base  enough.  It  is  now  too  late  to  retire  from  the  contest. 
There  is  no  retreat  but  submission  and  slavery!  Our  chains  are 
forged;  their  clanking  may  be  heard  on  the  plains  of  Boston  I  The 
war  is  inevitable — and  let  it  come!  I  repeat  it,  sir,  let  it  come! 

It  is  in  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  matters.  Gentlemen  may  cry 
Peace,  Peace — but  there  is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun! 
The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the 
clash  of  resounding  arms!  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field! 
Why  stand  we  here  idle?  What  is  it  that  the  gentlemen  wish? 
What  would  they  have?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to 
be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it 
Almighty  God  I  I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take  ;  but 
as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death! 

— Patrick  Henry:  Speech  in  The  Virginia  Convention,  1779. 

Exercise  2.  The  ideas  in  the  following  composition 
are  broken  up  into  short  sentences.  Rewrite  the  compo- 
sition so  that  the  sentence  shall  contain  complete  thoughts. 


In  front  of  the  cottage  was  a  group  of  scrub-oaks.  In  the  oaks 
the  birds  sang.  They  sang  all  day  long.  The  squirrels  chattered 
in  them.  A  swing  himg  from  one  of  the  branches.  Here  Mary 
loved  to  swing.  She  loved  to  feel  the  soft  breezes  on  her  cheeks. 
Through  the  leaves  of  the  oaks  she  could  see  the  clouds.  They  were 
slowly  sailing.  They  reminded  her  of  the  white  sails  of  the  yachts. 
The  yachts  were  in  the  harbor.  She  used  to  dream  that  they  were 
fairy  yachts.  She  used  to  dream  that  they  were  coming.  She 
dreamed  that  they  were  coming  to  bear  her  away  to  fairy  land. 
The  days  were  too  short  for  all  her  dreams. 

2.  Clearness  obtained  by  revision.  A  good  plan  to 
follow  is  to  write  whatever  comes  into  the  mind  on  a 
certain  subject  as  carefully  and  thoughtfully  as  may  be, 
and  then  to  revise  the  work  before  making  a  final  copy. 
In  such  revision  we  should  see  that  the  thought  in  each 
sentence  is  complete,  that  there  is  no  more  than  one  com- 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  17 

plete  thought  in  each  sentence,  and  that  each  sentence  is 
sharply  defined  by  capital  and  end-mark. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions  aloud : — 


A  November  mist  overspread  the  little  valley,  up  which  slowly 
but  steadily  rode  the  monk  Eustace.  He  was  not  insensible  to 
the  feeling  of  melancholy  inspired  by  the  scene  and  by  the  season. 
The  stream  seemed  to  murmur  with  a  deep  and  oppressed  note, 
as  if  bewailing  the  departure  of  autumn.  Among  the  scattered 
copses  which  here  and  there  fringed  its  banks,  the  oak  trees  only 
retained  that  pallid  green  that  precedes  their  russet  hue.  The 
leaves  of  the  willows  were  most  of  them  stripped  from  the  branches, 
lay  rustling  at  each  breath  and  disturbed  by  every  step  of  the  mule; 
while  the  foliage  of  other  trees,  totally  withered,  kept  still  precarious 
possession  of  the  boughs,  waiting  the  first  wind  to  scatter  them. 
— Scott:  The  Monastery. 

2. 

This  is  a  glorious  day, — ^bright,  very  warm,  yet  with  an  unspeak- 
able gentleness  both  in  its  warmth  and  brightness.  On  such  days 
it  is  impossible  not  to  love  Nature,  for  she  evidently  loves  us.  At 
other  seasons  she  does  not  give  me  this  impression,  or  only  at  very 
rare  intervals;  but  in  these  happy,  autumnal  days,  when  she  has 
perfected  the  harvests,  and  accompHshed  every  necessary  thing 
that  she  had  to  do,  she  overflows  with  a  blessed  superfluity  of  love. 
It  is  good  to  be  ahve  now.  Thank  God  for  breath, — ^yes,  for  mere 
breath!  when  it  is  made  up  of  such  a  heavenly  breeze  as  this. — Hauh 
thome:  American  Note  Books. 

3. 

The  country  is  deUghtful;  the  fresh-looking  wooded  mountains 
never  grow  monotonous.  Their  shape  constantly  varies;  there  is 
a  new  aspect  every  quarter  of  an  hour.  They  seem  to  me  ever 
ahve,  presenting  here  a  chest  and  there  a  spine,  prone  or  upright, 
grave  and  noble  in  appearance. — Taine:  Journeys  through  France, 


18  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Class  discussion. 

1.  In  each  of  the  compositions  given  above,  there  is 
one  word  which  furnishes  the  mood  or  atmosphere.  Find 
the  word  in  each  composition.  2.  What  details  empha- 
size the  mood  in  each  case?  3.  Find  other  words  for 
hewailinQy  pallid,  precarious,  4.  What  is  the  force  of 
the  expression  in  the  last  composition,  "here  a  chest 
and  there  a  spine"? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  from  the  following  a  subject  that  is  in  season: — 

1.  It  is  a  dismal  day  in  November  (or  any  other  month). 

2.  The  first  snow-storm  has  come,  and  a  wonderful 
transformation  has  taken  place.  3.  The  fields  after 
harvest  present  a  forlorn  appearance.  4.  It  is  a  delight- 
ful day  in  June  (or  any  other  month).  5.  From  my 
piazza  (or  window)  I  get  an  attractive  view. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

Read  the  following  poem  through.  Study  it  to  get  a 
mental  picture  of  the  poet^s  house.  Describe  it  so  as  to 
present  the  picture  to  the  class.  Describe  the  house 
where  you  yourself  were  born. 

PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

I  remember,  I  remember 
The  house  where  I  was  bom, 
The  little  window  where  the  sun 
Came  peeping  in  at  mom; 
He  never  came  a  wink  too  soon 
Nor  brought  too  long  a  day; 
But  now,  I  often  wish  the  night 
Had  borne  my  breath  away. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  19 

I  remember,  I  remember 
The  roses,  red  and  white. 
The  violets,  and  the  hly-cups— 
Those  flowers  made  of  hghtl 
The  lilacs  where  the  robin  built, 
And  where  my  brother  set 
The  laburnum  on  his  birthday, — 
The  tree  is  hving  yet  I 

I  remember,  I  remember 

Where  I  was  used  to  swing. 

And  thought- the  air  must  rush  as  fresh 

To  swallows  on  the  wing; 

My  spirit  flew  in  feathers  then 

That  is  so  heavy  now. 

And  summer  pools  could  hardly  cool 

The  fever  on  my  brow. 

I  remember,  I  remember 

The  fir  trees  dark  and  high; 

I  used  to  think  their  slender  tops 

Were  close  against  the  sky: 

It  was  a  childish  ignorance. 

But  now  'tis  Uttle  joy 

To  know  I'm  farther  off  from  Heaven 

Than  when  I  was  a  boy. 

— r.  Hood, 


LESSON  V 

L  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of 
Punctuation. 

1.  When  we  are  speaking  to  anyone  or  holding  conver- 
sation with  anyone,  we  can  usually  make  ourselves 
immediately  understood  by  means  of  inflection  and 
pauses.  In  written  composition,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
we  wish  to  be  immediately  understood  we  must  indicate 
inflection  and  pauses  by  means  of  punctuation.  There 
are  a  few  marks  of  punctuation  which  are  arbitrary  and 
have  little  to  do  with  clearness;  for  example,  the  period 
at  the  end  of  an  abbreviation.  But  in  general  we  punc- 
tuate with  due  regard  to  the  economy  of  the  reader's 
attention.  That  is,  we  use  whatever  marks  are  necessary 
to  keep  the  reader  from  going  over  the  sentence  again  to 
see  what  it  means.  Throughout  our  school  course,  we 
have  been  learning  rules  for  the  use  of  these  marks  of 
punctuation,  and  these  rules  we  shall  find  reviewed  in 
Appendix  B,  p.  251  of  this  book.  But  it  is  not  so  much 
rules  that  we  need  now,  as  good  sense  and  good  judgment 
in  putting  the  marks  where  they  will  best  express  the 
ideas  which  we  wish  to  convey  to  the  reader. 

2.  The  most  useful  of  these  marks  of  punctuation  is 
the  comma.  It  should  become  as  much  of  a  habit  to  put 
the  comma  where  it  belongs  as  it  is  to  dot  the  i's  or  cross 
the  fs.  Great  care  should  be  exercised,  however,  not  to 
use  too  many  or  too  few  of  these  marks.  Either  fault 
will  confuse  the  reader  and  waste  his  attention  which 
we  are  trying  to  economize.    In  the  illustrative  sentences 

20 


THE  USE  OF  THE  COMMA  21 

below,  for  example,  the  meaning  is  made  obviously 
different  by  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the  comma. 

It  matters  not  that  there  is  a  rule  for  its  use.  The 
question  is,  what  do  we  mean?  Will  the  reader  under- 
stand what  we  mean? 

Example  1.  The  mules  which  had  not  been  taken 
out  of  the  mines  for  work  tugged  at  their  halters  in 
desperation. 

(In  this  sentence  there  were  evidently  some  mules 
which  had  been  taken  out  of  the  mines.) 

Example  2.  The  mules,  which  had  not  been  taken 
out  of  the  mines  for  work,  tugged  at  their  halters  in 
desperation. 

(In  this  sentence  the  explanation  is  given  that  the 
mules  had  not  been  taken  out  of  the  mine.) 

Example  3.  The  caterer  had  rolls,  cake,  peaches,  and 
cream  for  sale. 

(In  this  sentence  the  caterer  has  four  separate  articles 
for  sale.) 

Example  4.  The  caterer  had  rolls,  cake,  peaches  and 
cream,  for  sale. 

(In  this  sentence,  the  peaches  and  cream  were  evidently 
sold  together.) 

Exercise  1.  Show  the  necessity  of  the  comma  as 
used  in  the  following  compositions.  Could  any  of  the 
commas  be  omitted  without  loss  of  clearness? 

1. 

The  bystanders  began  now  to  look  at  each  other,  nod,  wink 
significantly,  and  tap  their  fingers  against  their  foreheads.  There 
was  a  whisper,  also,  about  securing  the  gun  and  keeping  the  old 
fellow  from  doing  mischief,  at  the  very  suggestion  of  which  the  self- 


22  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

important  man  in  the  cocked  hat  retired  with  some  precipitation. 
At  this  critical  moment  a  fresh  comely  woman  pressed  through 
the  throng  to  get  a  peep  at  the  gray-bearded  man.  She  had  a 
chubby  child  in  her  arms,  which,  frightened  at  his  looks,  began  to 
ciy.  *'Hush,  Rip,"  cried  she,  "hush,  you  little  fool;  the  old  man 
won't  hurt  you."  The  name  of  the  child,  the  air  of  the  mother, 
the  tone  of  her  voice,  all  awakened  a  train  of  recollections  in  his 
mind.  "What  is  your  name,  my  good  woman?"  asked  he. — Irving: 
Rip  Van  Winkle. 

2. 
"There  seemed  to  be  no  other  inn  in  the  whole  town.    People 
gave  us  directions,  which  we  followed  as  best  we  could,  generally 
with  the  effect  of  bringing  us  out  again  upon  the  scene  of  our  dis- 
grace." 

Exercise  2.  Read  the  following  paragraph  aloud, 
pausing  wherever  you  think  a  comma  should  be  inserted. 
Class  criticize.  Write  the  exercise,  putting  in  commas 
wherever  they  are  needed. 

Come  little  friend  into  the  cool  damp  sweet  woods.  Birds  and 
brooks  and  trees  will  be  there  to  welcome  us.  Squirrels  woodpeckers 
and  robins  will  be  our  companions.  TraiUng  arbutus  the  har- 
binger of  Spring  wafts  its  sweet  odors  to  us.  Let  us  go  dear  child 
to  the  very  heart  of  the  wood.  There  we  will  push  aside  the  damp 
leafy  mold  cull  the  fragrant  blossoms  and  listen  aU  the  while  to  the 
pure  sweet  notes  of  the  woodland  birds.  Wherever  we  go  the 
sunbeams  will  follow  us.  The  murmuring  pines  too  will  whisper 
messages  of  joy  to  us  and  all  nature  will  try  to  make  us  happy. 
The  child  who  would  reject  these  deUghts  does  not  deserve  to  live. 
The  Creator  who  loves  his  children  made  the  woods  for  our  enjoy- 
ment. Let  us  then  help  ourselves  to  His  gifts  and  hie  us  away  to 
the  merry  greenwood. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 

It  was  a  rainy  Sunday  in  the  gloomy  month  of  November.  I 
had  been  detained  in  the  course  of  a  journey  by  a  sUght  indis- 
position, from  which  I  was  recovering;  but  was  still  feverish,  and 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  23 

obliged  to  keep  within  doors  all  day,  in  an  inn  of  the  BmsSI  town  of 
Derby.  A  wet  Sunday  in  a  country  inni — whoever  has  had  the  luck 
to  experience  one  can  alone  judge  of  my  situation.  The  rain  pat- 
tered against  the  casements;  the  bells  tolled  for  church  with  a  melan- 
choly sound.  I  went  to  the  windows  in  quest  of  something  to  amuse 
the  eye;  but  it  seemed  as  if  I  had  been  placed  completely  out  of  reach 
of  all  amusement.  The  windows  of  my  bedroom  looked  out  among 
tiled  roofs  and  stacks  of  chimneys,  while  those  of  my  sitting  room 
commanded  a  full  view  of  the  stable-yard.  I  know  of  nothing 
more  calculated  to  make  a  man  sick  of  this  world  than  a  stable- 
yard  on  a  rainy  day.  The  place  was  Uttered  with  wet  straw  that 
had  been  kicked  about  by  travellers  and  stable-boys.  In  one 
comer  was  a  stagnant  pool  of  water,  surrounding  an  island  of  muck; 
there  were  several  half-drowned  fowls  crowded  together  under  a 
cart,  among  which  was  a  miserable,  crest-fallen  cock,  drenched  out 
of  all  life  and  spirit,  his  drooping  tail  matted,  as  it  were,  into  a 
single  feather,  along  which  the  water  trickled  from  his  back;  near 
the  cart  was  a  half-dozing  cow,  chewing  the  cud  and  standing 
patiently  to  be  rained  on,  with  wreaths  of  vapor  rising  from  her 
reeking  hide;  a  wall-eyed  horse,  tired  of  the  loneliness  of  the  stable, 
was  poking  his  spectral  head  out  of  a  window,  with  the  rain  dropping 
on  it  from  the  eaves;  an  unhappy  cur,  chained  to  a  dog-house  hard 
by,  uttered  something  every  now  and  then,  between  a  bark  and  a 
yelp;  a  drab  of  a  kitchen-wench  tramped  backward  and  forward 
through  the  yard  in  pattens,  looking  as  sulky  as  the  weather  itself; 
everything,  in  short,  was  comfortless  and  forlorn,  excepting  a  crew 
of  hardened  ducks,  assembled  hke  boon  companions  round  a  puddle 
and  making  a  riotous  noise  over  their  liquor. — Irving:  The  SiotU 
Gentleman, 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Find  a  subject  that  will  fit  the  composition  given 
above.  2.  Irving  meant  to  reproduce  a  certain  atmos- 
phere. Find  a  word  that  will  define  that  atmosphere. 
3.  Find  as  many  words  as  possible  in  the  text  which 
give  that  atmosphere.  4.  There  are  some  living  objects 
in  the  scene  besides  the  writer.     What  are  they  and 


24  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

what  do  they  add  to  the  scene?  5.  Do  the  ducks  at 
the  end  make  the  picture  to  your  mind  less  "  comfort- 
less and  forlorn  ? ''  6.  Give  other  expressions  for  these 
in  italics: — '^ littered  with  wet  straw";  "crestfallen  cock; 
drenched  out  of  all  life  and  spirit";  "reeking  hide";  "a 
wall-eyed  horse ";  " spectral  head ";  "a  riotous  noise." 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects: — 1.  Describe  the 
scene  given  above  as  it  might  appear  on  a  pleasant 
day.  2.  Describe  your  back  yard  on  a  wet  day.  3.  The 
shopping  district  Dn  a  wet  day.  4.  The  docks  on  a 
wet  day.  5.  The  railroad  station  on  a  wet  day.  6.  Any 
scene  (which  you  have  observed  closely  and  which  has 
enough  objects  to  give  the  scene  life  and  color)  on  a 
wet  day, — a  grape-arbor,  a  vine-covered  wall,  a  hen 
yard,  a  dingle  in  the  woods,  the  creek,  the  salt-marshes, 
the  hayfield  after  it  has  been  mowed,  the  potato  patch, 
the  park,  the  flower-garden,  your  favorite  play-ground, 
the  ball-grounds. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Describe  the  battle  that  took  place  at  this  bridge. 

2.  Can  you  tell  the  story  of  a  battle  that  took  place 
at  some  other  bridge? 

3.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 

CONCORD  HYMN. 
(Sung  at  the  Completion  of  the  Battle  Monument,  April  19,  1836.) 

By  the  rude  bridge  that  arched  the  flood, 

Their  flag  to  April's  breeze  unfurled, 
Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood. 

And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  26 

The  foe  long  since  in  silence  slept; 

Alike  the  conqueror  silent  sleeps; 
And  Time  the  ruined  bridge  has  swept 

Down  the  dark  stream  which  seaward  creeps. 

On  this  green  bank,  by  this  soft  streani, 

We  set  to-day  a  votive  stone; 
That  memory  may  their  deed  redeem, 

When,  like  our  sires,  pur  sons  are  gone. 

Spirit,  that  made  those  heroes  dare 

To  die  and  leave  their  children  free. 
Bid  Time  and  Nature  gently  spare 

The  shaft  we  raise  to  them  and  thee. 

— Emerson. 


LESSON  VI 

I.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of 
Punctuation. 

1.  There  are  certain  other  marks  besides  the  comma, 
which  are  sometimes  needed  to  make  the  sentence 
immediately  clear  to  the  reader;  as,  the  colon,  the  semi- 
colon, the  dash.  Here  again  there  are  certain  arbitrary 
usages;  as,  for  example,  a  semi-colon  before  as,  viz,, 
L  e.  But  in  general  these  marks  are  used  only  when  they 
will  make  the  sense  clearer.  Since,  as  young  writers, 
we  are  not  allowing  our  sentences  to  be  very  long,  we 
shall  need  to  use  these  marks  but  sparingly. 

2.  Quotation  marks  and  the  apostrophe  are  absolutely 
necessary,  both  for  clearness  and  for  correctness.  We 
know  where  these  marks  should  be  used,  but  we  some- 
times carelessly  omit  them  and  thus  confuse  the  reader. 
We  should  make  it  as  much  of  a  habit  to  use  them  cor- 
rectly as  to  spell  correctly. 

Exercise  1.  Account  for  all  uses  of  the  marks  of 
punctuation  in  the  following  extracts: — 


We  trudged  in  and  out  of  La  Fdre  streets;  we  saw  shops,  and 
private  houses  where  people  were  copiously  dining;  we  saw  stables 
where  carters'  nags  had  plenty  of  fodder  and  clean  straw;  we  saw 
no  end  of  reservists,  who  were  very  sorry  for  themselves  this  wet 
night,  I  doubt  not,  and  yearned  for  their  country  homes. — Stevemon: 
An  Inland  Voyage. 

26 


PUNCTUATION  27 

2. 

Then,  Sir,  from  these  six  capital  sources:  of  descent,  of  form  of 
government,  of  religion  in  the  northern  provinces,  of  manners  in 
the  southern,  of  education,  of  the  remoteness  of  situation  from  the 
first  mover  of  government, — from  all  these  causes  a  fierce  spirit 
of  liberty  has  grown  up. — Burke:  Conciliation  with  America. 

3. 

Shakespere's  "Macbeth"  contains  the  suggestive  passage  quoted 
below. — 

"Enter  Lady  Macbeth:  reading  a  letter. 

"Lady  M.  'They  met  me  in  the  day  of  success:  and  I  have 
learned  by  the  perfectest  report,  they  have  more  in  them  than 
mortal  knowledge.  When  I  burned  in  desire  to  question  them 
further,  they  made  themselves  air,  into  which  they  vanished.  Whiles 
I  stood  rapt  in  the  wonder  of  it,  came  missives  from  the  king,  who 
all-hailed  me  "Thane  of  Cawdor";  by  which  title,  before,  these 
weird  sisters  saluted  me,  and  referred  me  to  the  coming  on  of  time, 
with  "Hail,  king  that  shalt  be!"  This  have  I  thought  good  to  deliver 
thee,  my  dearest  partner  of  greatness,  that  thou  mightst  not  lose 
the  dues  of  rejoicing,  by  being  ignorant  of  what  greatness  is  promised 
thee.    Lay  it  to  thy  heart,  and  farewell.' " 

Exercise  2.  Copy  the  following  exercises  and  punc-  , 
tuate  them  wherever  clearness  or  proper  usage  requires 
that  they  should  be  punctuated: — 


Boston  has  two  terminal  railway  stations  viz.  the  North  Union 
Station  and  the  South  Union  Station.  There  is  not  an  hour  in 
the  day  when  people  are  not  hiurying  through  them  intent  on  some 
kind  of  business  but  perhaps  the  busiest  hour  of  the  day  is  the  one 
about  six  o'clock  when  people  are  rushing  for  their  home  trains. 
At  that  time  the  interested  spectator  may  stand  £tod  watch  the 
surging  stream  of  life  business  men  who  have  laid  aside  the  cares 
of  the  day  and  are  looking  forward  to  meeting  their  families  women 
loaded  with  bags  boxes  and  bundles  children  tired  out  with  their 


28  ^  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

days  jaunt  and  railway  officials  keeping  careful  watch  of  everything 
or  busily  engaged  in  their  various  duties. 


Reuben  is  a  very  lovable  little  boy.  Among  his  playmates  he 
is  called  Little  Gentleman  a  title  given  to  him  because  his  manners 
are  like  those  of  a  gentleman.  He  has  also  been  dubbed  The  Peace- 
maker. 

One  day  at  recess  a  big  boy  named  Ben  was  making  fun  of  a 
httle  boys  writing.  Your  2s  and  7s  look  like  pot-hooks  he  shouted 
and  your  bs  and  da  dont  know  which  way  to  turn.  The  httle  boy 
began  to  cry  and  Reuben  comforted  him  by  saying  tactfully  When 
youre  as  big  as  Ben  youU  make  em  all  right. 

On  another  day  the  same  big  boy  snatched  a  pencil  from  a  httle 
girl.    Its  mine  he  shouted  tauntingly  and  jabbed  it  into  the  fence. 

O  youve  broken  its  point  sobbed  the  little  girl. 

Never  mind  said  Reuben  to  the  Httle  girls  joy.  Ill  sharpen  it 
for  you. 

Reuben  hke  all  bright  httle  boys  is  very  fond  of  reading.  He 
is  especially  fond  of  Coopers  Leather-Stocking  Tales  and  Coffins 
war  stories.  His  favorite  books  are  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  and 
The  Boys  of  76. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions  aloud; — 

1. 

A  Heidenberg  stove,  filled  to  the  brim  with  intensely  burning 
anthracite,  w£is  sending  a  bright  gleam  through  the  isinglass  of 
its  iron  door,  and  causing  the  vase  of  water  on  its  top  to  fume  and 
bubble  with  excitement.  A  warm,  sultry  smell  was  diffused  through- 
out the  room.  A  thermometer  on  the  wall  farthest  from  the  stove 
stood  at  eighty  degrees.  The  parlor  was  hung  with  red  curtains, 
and  covered  with  a  red  carpet,  and  looked  just  as  warm  as  it  felt. 
The  difference  betwixt  the  atmosphere  here  and  the  cold,  wintry 
twiUght  out  of  doors,  was  like  stepping  at  once  from  Nova  Zembla 
to  the  hottest  part  of  India,  or  from  the  North  Pole  into  an  oven. 
Oh,  this  was  a  fijie  place  for  the  httle  white  stranger. — Hawthorne: 
The  Snow  Image, 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  29 


The  dinner  was  served  up  in  the  great  hall,  where  the  squire 
always  held  his  Christmas  banquet.  A  blazing  crackling  fire  of 
logs  had  been  heaped  on  to  warm  the  spacious  apartment,  and  the 
flame  went  sparkling  and  wreathing  up-  the  wide-mouthed  chimney. 
The  great  picture  of  the  crusader  and  his  white  horse  had  been 
profusely  decorated  with  greens  for  the  occasion;  and  holly  and  ivy 
had  likewise  been  wreathed  round  the  helmet  and  weapons  on  the 
opposite  wall,  which  I  understood  were  the  arms  of  the  same  war- 
rior. ...  A  sideboard  was  set  out  just  under  this  chivalric 
trophy,  on  which  was  a  display  of  plate  that  might  have  vied  (at 
least  in  variety)  with  Belshazzar's  parade  of  the  vessels  of  the 
temple:  "flagons,  cans,  cups,  beakers,  goblets,  basins,  and  ewers;" 
the  gorgeous  utensils  of  good  companionship  that  had  gradually 
accumulated  through  many  generations  of  jovial  housekeepers. 
Before  these  stood  the  two  Yule  candles,  beaming  like  two  stars 
of  the  first  magnitude;  other  lights  were  distributed  in  branches, 
and  the  whole  array  gUttered  like  a  firmament  of  silver. — Irving: 
The  Christmas  Dinner. 

3. 

It  had  a  garret,  very  nearly  such  a  one  as  it  seems  to  me  one  of 
us  has  described  in  one  of  his  books;  but  let  us  look  at  this  one  as 
I  can  reproduce  it  from  memory.  It  has  a  flooring  of  laths  with 
ridges  of  mortar  squeezed  up  between  them,  which  if  you  tread  on 
you  will  go  to  —  the  Lord  have  mercy  on  you!  where  wiU  you 
go  to?  —  the  same  being  crossed  by  narrow  bridges  of  boards,  on 
which  you  may  put  your  feet,  but  with  fear  and  trembling.  Above 
you  and  around  you  are  beams  and  joists,  on  some  of  which  you 
may  see,  when  the  light  is  let  in,  the  marks  of  the  conchoidal  cHp- 
pings  of  the  broad-axe,  showing  the  rude  way  in  which  the  timber 
was  shaped  as  it  came,  full  of  sap,  from  the  neighboring  forest.  It 
is  a  realm  of  darkness  and  thick  dust,  and  shroud-like  cobwebs 
and  dead  things  they  wrap  in  their  gray  folds.  For  a  garret  is  like 
a  sea-shore,  where  wrecks  are  thrown  up  and  slowly  go  to  pieces. 
There  is  the  cradle  which  the  old  man  you  just  remember  was  rocked 
in;  there  is  the  ruin  of  the  bedstead  he  died  on;  that  ugly  slanting 
contrivance  used  to  be  put  under  his  pillow  in  the  days  when  his 


80  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

breath  came  hard;  there  is  his  old  chair  with  both  arms  gone,  symbol 
of  the  desolate  time  when  he  had  nothing  earthly  left  to  lean  on; 
there  is  the  large  wooden  reel  which  the  blear-eyed  old  deacon  sent 
the  minister's  lady,  who  thanked  him  graciously,  and  twirled  it 
smihngly,  and  in  fitting  season  bowed  it  out  decently  to  the  Umbo 
of  troublesome  conveniences.  And  there  are  old  leather  port- 
manteaus, like  stranded  porpoises,  their  mouths  gaping  in  gaunt 
hunger  for  the  food  with  which  they  used  to  be  gorged  to  bulging 
repletion;  and  old  brass  andirons,  waiting  imtil  time  shall  revenge 
them  on  their  paltry  substitutes,  and  they  shall  have  their  own 
again,  and  bring  with  them  the  fore-stick  and  the  back-log  of  ancient 
days;  and  the  empty  churn,  with  its  idle  dasher,  which  the  Nancys 
and  Phoebes,  who  have  left  their  comfortable  places  to  the  Bridgets 
and  Norahs,  used  to  handle  to  good  purpose;  and  the  brown,  shaky 
old  spinning-wheel,  which  was  running,  it  may  be,  in  the  days 
when  they  were  hanging  the  Salem  witches. — Holmes:  TheGawbrel- 
Roofed  House. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Find  for  each  of  the  above  compositions  a  subject 
which  will  define  the  idea  the  author  meant  to  convey- 
2.  What  details  determined  your  choice  of  subject  in 
each  case?  3.  In  the  last  composition,  what  expressions 
give  the  piece  a  human  quality?  4.  Find  other  words 
for  the  following,  taken  from  the  first  composition: 
intensely,  fume,  diffused,  5.  In  the  second  extract: 
spacious,  profusely,  vied,  jovial,  gorgeous.  6.  In  each 
composition  find  an  illustration  used  to  make  the  picture 
more  vivid. 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

From  the  following  subjects  choose  one  which  has  come 
under  your  close  observation: —  1.  A  spacious  play-room. 
2.  Your  grandmother's  old-fashioned  garret.  3.  Your 
own  cluttered  attic.  4.  A  cluttered  corner  of  the  barn 
or   cellar.     5.  A  fine  playground.     6.   A  comfortable 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  31 

veranda.     7.  A  cosy  corner.     8.  Your  "den,"  or  work- 
shop.  9.  An  untidy  back-yard.   10.  A  well-kept  orchard. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  Why  did  the  "Royal 
George  "  go  down?  3.  Tell  the  story  of  some  other 
vessel  that  has  sunk,  and  floated  again. 

LOSS  OF  THE  ROYAL  GEORGE. 

Toll  for  the  Brave  I 
The  brave  that  are  no  morel 
All  sunk  beneath  the  wave 
Fast  by  their  native  shore  I 

Eight  hundred  of  the  brave 
Whose  courage  well  was  tried, 
Had  made  the  vessel  heel 
And  laid  her  on  her  side. 

A  land-breeze  shook  the  shrouds 
And  she  was  overset; 
Down  went  the  Royal  George, 
With  all  her  crew  complete. 

Toll  for  the  bravel 
Brave  Kempenfelt  is  gone; 
His  last  sea-fight  is  fought. 
His  work  of  glory  done. 

It  was  not  in  the  battle; 
No  tempest  gave  the  shock; 
She  sprang  no  fatal  leak. 
She  ran  upon  no  rock. 

His  sword  was  in  its  sheath. 
His  fingers  held  the  pen. 
When  Kempenfelt  went  down 
in^th  twice  four  hundred  men. 


32 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


— ^Weigh  the  vessel  up 
Once  dreaded  by  our  foes! 
And  mingle  with  our  cup 
The  tears  that  England  owes. 

Her  timbers  yet  are  soimd, 

And  she  may  float  again 

Full  charged  with  England's  thunder, 

And  plough  the  distant  main: 


But  Kempenfelt  is  gone, 
His  victories  are  o'er; 
And  he  and  his  eight  hundred 
Shall  plough  the  wave  no  more. 


■W.  Cowper, 


LESSON  VII 

I.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas  by  means  of 
Capitals. 

1.  It  might  be  objected  that  capitals  have  nothing 
to  do  with  clearness,  because  arbitrary  rules  govern  their 
use.  While  this  objection  is  true  in  a  certain  measure, 
we  should  remember  that  the  primary  use  of  capitals 
is  to  distinguish  certain  classes  of  words,  and  thus  to 
make  ideas  clearer  to  the  reader. 

2.  We  have  already  found  how  necessary  to  clearness 
it  is  to  have  our  sentences  begin  with  capitals.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  regular  use  are  other  usages,  rules  for  which 
we  have  been  learning  throughout  our  school  course. 
Rules  for  these  usages  will  be  found  in  Appendix  B,  p.  256 
and  they  should  be  consulted  in  all  cases  of  doubt.  It  is 
as  important  to  use  a  capital  in  the  proper  place  as  it 
is  to  spell  correctly,  or  to  punctuate  properly. 

Exercise  1.  Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  capitals 
in  bold  face  type  in  the  following: — 

1. 

In  the  December  "Atlantic  Monthly"  there  is  an  article  on  'rExpan- 
sion  through  Reciprocity,"  one  on  the  question  of  whether  Italy 
will  renew  the  Triple  Alliance,  an  essay  on  the  literature  of  the 
Civil  War,  and  a  Christmas  poem  by  Julia  C.  R.  Dorr. 


By  Woden,  god  of  Saxons, 
From  whence  comes  Wensday,  that  is  Wodensday, 
Truth  is  a  thing  that  ever  I  will  keep. 
33 


34  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

3. 

We  set  sail  for  Europe  in  April,  soon  after  Lent,  and  returned 
early  in  September.  We  were  steaming  into  New  York  Harbor 
on  Labor  Day.  On  our  boat  were  Jews  and  Gentiles,  Catholics 
and  Protestants,  French  and  German  people,  an  Ambassador  from 
Italy,  and  even  an  Indian  student,  returning  to  Carlisle  after  his 
holidays  spent  in  the  Trossachs. 

Exercise  2.  Account  for  the  uses  of  the  capital  in 
the  following  poem: — 

MUCKLE-MOUTH  MEG. 

Frowned  the  Laird  on  the  Lord:  "So,  red-handed  I  catch  thee? 

Death-doomed  by  our  Law  of  the  Borderl 
We've  a  gallows  outside,  and  a  chiel  to  dispatch  thee: 

Who  trespasses,  hangs;  all's  in  order." 

He  met  frown  with  smile,  did  the  young  English  gallant; 

Then  the  Laird's  dame:  "  Nay,  husband,  I  beg! 
He's  comely:  be  merciful  I    Grace  for  the  callant, 

If  he  marries  our  Muckle-mouth  Meg!" 

"No  mile-wide-mouthed  monster  of  yours  do  I  marry; 

Grant  rather  the  gallows!  "  laughed  he. 
"Foul  fare  kith  and  kin  of  you — why  do  you  tarry?" 

"To  tame  your  fierfce  temper!"  quoth  she. 

"Shove  him  quick  in  the  Hole,  shut  him  fast  for  a  week: 

Cold,  darkness,  and  hunger  work  wonders; 
Who  Hon-like  roars  now,  mouse-fashion  will  squeak, 

And  *it  rains'  soon  succeeds  to  'it  thunders.* " 

A  week  did  he  bide  in  the  cold  and  the  dark — 

Not  hunger:  for  duly  at  morning 
In  flitted  a  lass,  and  a  voice  like  a  lark 

Chirped,  "Muckle-mouth  Meg  still  ye're  scorning? 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  35 

"Go  hang,  but  here's  parritch  to  hearten  ye  firstl" 

"Did  Meg's  muckle-mouth  boast  within  some 
Such  music  as  yours,  mine  should  match  it  or  burst: 

No  frog-jaws!    So  tell  folk,  my  Winsome! " 

Soon  week  came  to  end,  and,  from  Hole's  door  set  wide, 

Out  he  marched,  and  there  waited  the  lassie: 
"Yon  gallows,  or  Muckle-mouth  Meg  for  a  bride! 

Consider!    Sky's  blue  and  turf's  grassy: 

"Life's  sweet :  shall  I  say  ye  wed  Muckle-mouth  Meg?" 

"Not  I,"  quoth  the  stout  heart;  "  too  eerie 
The  mouth  that  can  swallow  a  bubblyjock's  egg: 

Shall  I  let  it  munch  mine?    Never,  Dearie! " 

"Not  Muckle-mouth  Meg?    Wow,  the  obstinate  man! 

Perhaps  he  would  rather  wed  me!  " 
"Ay,  would  he — ^with  just  for  a  dowry  your  can! " 

"  I'm  Muckle-mouth  Meg,"  chirruped  she. 

"Then  so — so — so — so — "  as  he  kissed  her  apace — 

"Will  I  widen  thee  out  till  thou  tumest 
From  Margaret  Minnikin-mou',  by  God's  grace, 

To  Muckle-mouth  Meg  in  good  earnest! " 

— Robert  Brouming. 

n.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 

Will  Wimble  is  yoimger  brother  of  a  baronet  and  descended 
of  the  ancient  family  of  the  Wimbles.  He  is  now  between  forty 
and  fifty:  but  being  bred  to  no  business,  and  bom  to  no  estate,  he 
generally  lives  with  his  elder  brother  as  superintendent  of  his  game. 
He  hunts  a  pack  of  dogs  better  than  any  man  in  the  country,  and 
is  very  famous  for  finding  out  a  hare.  He  is  extremely  well  versed  in 
all  the  little  handicrafts  of  an  idle  man:  he  makes  a  May-fly  to  a 
miracle;  and  furnishes  the  whole  country  with  angle  rods.  As  he 
is  a  good-natured  officious  fellow,  and  very  much  esteemed  upon 
6 


36  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

account  of  his  family,  he  is  a  welcome  guest  at  every  house,  and 
keeps  up  a  good  correspondence  among  all  the  gentlemen  about 
him.  He  carries  a  tulip-root  in  his  pocket  from  one  to  another, 
or  exchanges  a  puppy  between  a  couple  of  friends  that  live  perhaps 
in  the  opposite  sides  of  the  county.  Will  is  a  particular  favorite 
of  all  the  young  heirs,  whom  he  frequently  obUges  with  a  net  that 
he  has  weaved,  or  a  setting  dog  that  he  has  made  himself.  He 
now  and  then  presents  a  pair  of  garters  of  his  own  knitting  to  their 
mothers  or  sisters;  and  raises  a  great  deal  of  mirth  among  them  by 
inquiring  as  often  as  he  meets  them,  how  they  wear?  These  gen- 
tleman-like manufactures  and  obliging  little  humours  make  Will 
the  darling  of  the  country. — Addison:  The  Spectator. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  are  the  "gentleman-like  manufactures  "  and 
"obliging  little  humors  "  that  make  Will  Wimble  the 
"darling  of  the  country"  ?  2.  Find  other  expressions 
in  the  paragraph  that  here  mean  the  same  as  "the 
darling  of  the  country".  3.  What  excuse  had  this  man 
for  being  without  regular  employment?  4.  Why  would 
"An  Idle  Man  "  not  be  a  good  title  for  the  paragraph? 
5.  In  what  ways  did  he  make  himself  welcome,  and  by 
these  ways  to  what  classes  of  people?  6.  How  does  the 
writer  of  the  extract  make  use  of  illustration  or  example? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one: — 1.  A  welcome  guest  at  our  house.  2.  The 
most  popular  boy  (or  girl)  of  our  crowd.  3.  An  obliging 
fellow.  4.  An  agreeable  companion.  5.  A  useful  man 
(or  woman,  boy  or  girl).  6.  The  pet  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. 7.  A  boy  who  makes  himself  a  bore.  8.  The 
man  in  our  neighborhood  who  makes  suggestions.  9.  The 
most  unselfish  member  of  my  family.  10.  The  unlucky 
member  of  my  family.     11.   The  characters  opposite. 


'  • .  ••  •  • 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  87 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  Describe  what  the  poet 
saw  as  he  stood  "tip-toe  upon  a  little  hill".  3.  Describe 
what  you  can  see  from  the  hill  in  your  town.  4.  Describe 
the  scene  given  in  the  picture  opposite  p.  157. 

I  STOOD  TIP-TOE. 

I  stood  tip-toe  upon  a  little  hill, 

The  air  was  cooling,  and  so  very  still, 

That  the  sweet  buds  which  with  a  modest  pride 

Pull  droopingly,  in  slanting  curve  aside. 

Their  scantly  leaved,  and  finely  tapering  steins, 

Had  not  yet  lost  those  starry  diadems 

Caught  from  the  early  sobbing  of  the  morn. 

The  clouds  were  pure  and  white  as  flocks  new  shorn. 

And  fresh  from  the  clear  brook;  sweetly  they  slept 

On  the  blue  fields  of  heaven,  and  then  there  crept 

A  Uttle  noiseless  noise  among  the  leaves, 

Bom  of  the  very  sigh  that  silence  heaves: 

For  not  the  faintest  motion  could  be  seen 

Of  all  the  shades  that  slanted  o'er  the  green. 

There  was  wide  wand'ring  for  the  greediest  eye, 

To  peer  about  upon  variety; 

Far  round  the  horizon's  crystal  air  to  skim, 

And  trace  the  dwindled  edgings  of  its  brim; 

To  picture  out  the  quaint,  and  curious  bending 

Of  a  fresh  woodland  alley,  never  ending; 

Or  by  the  bowery  clefts,  and  leafy  shelves. 

Guess  where  the  jaunty  streams  refresh  themselves. 

I  gazed  awhile,  and  felt  as  light  and  free 

As  though  the  fanning  wings  of  Mercury 

Had  played  upon  my  heels:  I  was  light-hearted, 

And  many  pleasures  to  my  vision  started; 

So  I  straightway  began  to  pluck  a  posy 

Of  luxuries  bright,  milky,  soft,  and  rosy. 

—John  Keata, 


LESSON  VIII 

I.    Correct  Use  of  Words  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  Correctness  in  the  use  of  words  is  a  most  necessary 
requirement  for  the  expression  of  ideas.  In  order  to 
use  words  correctly  we  should  know  the  correct  meaning 
of  the  words  and  the  correct  place  in  which  to  use  them. 
A  word  which  might  be  wholly  correct  in  one  place 
might  be  wholly  incorrect  in  another  place.  For 
example,  we  may  say  an  elegant  lady,  but  we  may  not 
say  an  elegant  book.  Why?  Irving  may  say,  ''This 
sequestered  glen  has  long  been  known  by  the  name  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,"  but  we  may  not  say,  "The  Ubrarian 
hunted  long  for  a  sequestered  book".     Why? 

2.  Sometimes  an  incorrect  use  of  words  leads  to  actual 
vulgarity.  For  example,  if  we  say  "The  teacher  was 
mad,"  we  ought  to  mean  that  the  teacher's  intellect 
was  diseased.  If  we  say  "She  is  an  awful  girl",  we  are 
using  a  word  that  should  be  used  in  connection  only 
with  things  that  fill  us  with  awe. 

3.  While  we  are  learning  to  write  we  shall  have  to 
be  consciously  careful  to  use  words  correctly. 

To  help  us,  we  may  notice  how  cultured  and  educated 
people  use  words.  We  should  never  hear  them  say 
that  they  ^^adore  peaches  and  cream". 

We  may  notice  how  the  best  authors  use  words  in 
their  writings.  We  never  read  there  that  "this  is  a 
nice  day"  though  we  might  read  the  expression,  "In 
the  nice  ear  of  nature  which  song  was  the  best?" 


EXPREJgSION  OF  IDEAS  39 

A  surer  way  still  of  using  words  correctly  is  to  look 
up  their  meaning  in  the  dictionary,  especially  when  we 
need  to  use  a  new  word  or  one  the  meaning  of  which  we 
are  not  quite  sure  of.  Good  taste  and  high  aims  will 
lead  us  to  avoid  words  which  are  vulgarly  incorrect. 

Exercise  1.  Look  up  the  exact  meaning  of  each  of  the 
following  words  and  use  them  correctly  in  oral  sentences : — 
(1)  act,  action;  (2)  fetch,  carry;  (3)  couple,  pair;  (4) 
defeat,  vanquish;  (5)  depot,  railway-station;  (6)  discover, 
invent;  (7)  home,  house,  residence;  (8)  lady,  woman; 
(9)  learn,  teach;  (10)  mad,  angry;  (11)  team,  carriage. 

Exercise  2.  Use  the  following  words  correctly  in 
written  sentences :  bully,  swell,  horrid,  yell,  limit,  funny, 
quite,  dandy,  healthy,  nice,  affect,  accept. 

n.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 

In  this  by-place  of  nature,  there  abode,  in  a  remote  period  of 
American  history,  that  is  to  say,  some  thirty  years  since,  a  worthy 
wight  of  the  name  of  Ichabod  Crane;  who  sojourned,  or,  as  he 
expressed  it,  "tarried,"  in  Sleepy  Hollow  for  the  purpose  of  instruct- 
ing the  children  of  the  vicinity.  He  was  a  native  of  Connecticut; 
a  State  which  suppUes  the  Union  with  pioneers  for  the  mind  as  well 
as  for  the  forest,  and  sends  forth  yearly  its  legions  of  frontier  woods- 
men and  coimtry  schoolmasters.  The  cognomen  of  Crane  was  not 
inappUcable  to  his  person.  He  was  tall,  but  exceedingly  lank, 
with  narrow  shoulders,  long  arms  and  legs,  hands  that  dangled  a 
mile  out  of  his  sleeves,  feet  that  might  have  served  for  shovels, 
and  his  whole  frame  most  loosely  hung  together.  His  head  was 
smaU,  and  flat  at  top,  with  huge  ears,  large  green  glassy  eyes,  and  a 
long  snipe  nose,  so  that  it  looked  like  a  weather-cock,  perched  upon 
his  spindle  neck,  to  tell  which  way  the  wind  blew.  To  see  him 
striding  along  the  profile  of  a  hill  on  a  windy  day,  with  his  clothes 
bagging  and  fluttering  about  him,  one  might  have  mistaken  him 


40  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

for  the  genius  of  famine  descending  upon  the  earth,  or  some  scare- 
crow eloped  from  a  cornfield. — Irving:  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Notice  that  this  character-sketch  differs  in  its 
aim  from  the  one  in  the  last  Lesson.  How?  2.  What 
is  a  craned  3.  Do  you  find  any  points  of  similarity 
between  Ichabod  and  a  crane?  4.  Does  the  description 
seem  to  you  to  be  exaggerated?  If  so,  can  you  find  any 
excuse  for  the  exaggeration?  6.  Does  the  choice  of 
words  present  a  vivid  picture  to  your  mind?  Illustrate. 
7.  What  force  have  the  words  wight ^  tarried,  sojourned , 
cognomeuy  as  Irving  uses  them?  8.  What  is  a  snipe 
nose?  9.  What  is  the  force  of  the  illustration  of  the 
weather-cockf 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one: —  1.  Some  boy  that  you  know  has  a  nick- 
name among  the  boys.  Describe  him  so  that  the  reader 
may  see  the  point  in  the  name.  2.  Describe  a  queer 
character  in  your  town,  or  at  your  summer  home,  who  is 
known  by  some  name  given  to  him  on  account  of  his 
peculiarity.  3.  Describe  some  character  from  a  book 
that  you  have  read  that  reminds  you  of  Ichabod  Crane. 

4.  Mr.   Blunderbus.     5.  My  friend.   Fatty  .     6. 

Goldilocks.     7.  Honest   Abe.     8.  My    queenly  friend. 
9.  Miss  Mischief.    10.  Mr.  Know-It-AU. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  Tell  the  story  in  prose. 
3.  Tell  another  story  of  a  lost  child. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  41 


LUCY  GRAY. 


Oft  I  had  heard  of  Lucy  Gray: 
And  when  I  cross' d  the  wild, 

I  chanced  to  see  at  break  of  day 
The  solitary  child. 

No  mate,  no  comrade  Lucy  knew; 

She  dwelt  on  a  wide  moor. 
The  sweetest  thing  that  ever  grew 

Beside  a  human  doorl 

You  yet  may  spy  the  fawn  at  play, 

The  hare  upon  the  green; 
But  the  sweet  face  of  Lucy  Gray 

Will  never  more  be  seen. 

"  Tonight  will  be  a  stormy  night — 

You  to  the  town  must  go; 
And  take  a  lantern,  Child,  to  Hght 

Your  mother  through  the  snow." 

"  That,  Fatherl  will  I  gladly  do: 

'Tis  scarcely  afternoon — 
The  minster-clock  has  just  struck  two, 

And  yonder  is  the  moon! " 

At  this  the  father  raised  his  hook, 
And  snapp'd  a  faggot-band; 

He  plied  his  work; — and  Lucy  took 
The  lantern  in  her  hand. 

Not  bUther  is  the  mountain  roe: 
With  many  a  wanton  stroke 

Her  feet  disperse  the  powdery  snow, 
That  rises  up  like  smoke. 

The  storm  came  on  before  its  time: 
She  wander'd  up  and  down; 

And  many  a  hill  did  Lucy  climb: 
Put  never  reach'd  the  towij, 


42  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

The  wretched  parents  all  that  night 

Went  shouting  far  and  wide; 
But  there  was  neither  soimd  nor  sight 

To  serve  them  for  a  guide. 

At  day-break  on  a  hill  they  stood 

That  overlooked  the  moor; 
And  thence  they  saw  the  bridge  of  wood 

A  furlong  from  their  door. 

They  wept — and,  turning  homeward,  cried 

"In  heaven  we  all  shall  meet!" 
— When  in  the  snow  the  mother  spied 

The  print  of  Lucy's  feet. 

Then  downwards  from  the  steep  hill's  edge 

They  track'd  the  footmarks  small; 
And  through  the  broken  hawthorn  hedge. 

And  by  the  long  stone-wall; 

And  then  an  open  field  they  cross'd: 

The  marks  were  still  the  same; 
They  track'd  them  on,  nor  ever  lost; 

And  to  the  bridge  they  came : 

They  follow'd  from  the  snowy  bank 

Those  footmarks,  one  by  one, 
Into  the  middle  of  the  plank; 

And  further  there  were  none  I 

— Yet  some  maintain  that  to  this  day 

She  is  a  living  child; 
That  you  may  see  sweet  Lucy  Gray 

Upon  the  lonesome  wild. 

O'er  rough  and  smooth  she  trips  along. 

And  never  looks  behind; 
And  sings  a  soUtary  song 

That  whistles  in  the  wind. 

— TT.  WordswoHh. 


LESSON  IX 

I.  Correct  Use  of  Words  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

Exercise  1.  Look  up  the  exact  meaning  of  each  of 
the  following  words  and  use  them  correctly  in  oral 
sentences:  (1)  balance,  remainder;  (2)  council,  counsel; 
(3)  emigrate,  immigrate;  (4)  relation,  relative;  (5)  party, 
person;  (6)  admire,  love,  like;  (7)  aggravate,  provoke; 
(8)  recollect,  remember;  (9)  bring,  take;  (10)  between? 
among;  (11)  principal,  principle;  (12)  expect,  think; 
(13)  ride,  drive;  (14)  leave,  let;  (15)  guess,  think;  (16)  sit, 
set;  (17)  expect,  suspect;  (18)  oral,  verbal;  (19)  scholar 
pupil,  student;  (20)  after,  afterward. 

Exercise  2.  Use  the  following  words  correctly  in 
written  sentences:  lovely,  luscious,  awful,  mad,  ghastly, 
gorgeous,  sure,  couple,  near  by,  lucky,  effect,  except. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions  aloud: — 

1.  A  DIKE. 

A  dike  is  a  mound  or  embankment  thrown  up  to  prevent  low 
lands  from  being  inundated  by  water. 

2.  AN  OLD  ENGLISH  DIKE. 

The  dike,  extending  from  the  rough  North  Sea  to  the  calm  water 
of  Bridlington  Bay,  is  nothing  more  than  a  deep,  dry  trench,  skil- 
fully following  the  hollows  of  the  ground,  and  cutting  off  Flam- 
borough  Head  and  a  solid  cantle  of  high  land  from  the  rest  of  York- 
shire.— Blackmore:  Lorna  Doone. 

43 


44  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

1.  A  CAUSEWAY. 

A  causeway  is  a  way  raised  above  the  natural  level  of  the 
ground  by  stones,  timber,  or  earth,  serving  as  a  dry  passage  over 
wet  or  marshy  ground. 

2.  THE  GIANT'S  CAUSEWAY. 

The  Giant's  Causeway  in  Northern  Ireland  is  on  the  margin  of  a 
dissected  lava  plateau,  whose  clifiFs  descend  boldly  to  the  sea.  The 
name  is  given  because  the  lava  beds  are  cracked  or  "jointed" 
so  that  their  siuface  imitates  an  artificial  pavement  or  "causeway." 
— Davis :    Physical  Geography, 

Class  discussion. 

1.  In  what  way  do  the  selections  numbered  2,  differ 
from  or  resemble  those  numbered  1?  2.  Which  is  the 
more  interesting  and  why?  3.  Note  that  in  the  selec- 
tions numbered  2  the  words  are  few  but  they  present  the 
idea  strongly.    Find  illustrations. 

Subjects  for  written  compositions. 

Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects  or  a  subject  suggested 
by  them.  Write  first  a  brief  definition  of  the  thing  in  gen^ 
eralj  and  second,  a  brief  description  or  explanation  of  the 
specific  thing  you  have  in  mind.  1.  A  delta;  The  Miss- 
issippi Delta.  2.  A  jetty;  The  Jetties  at  Oak  Bluffs. 
3.  A  harbor;  Boston  Harbor.  4.  Give  a  general  defini- 
tion of  one  of  the  following  and  a  brief  explanation 
of  a  particular  one  in  the  place  where  you  live, — (1)  A 
turnpike,  (2)  a  portage  path,  (3)  a  suspension  bridge, 
(4)  a  natural  bridge,  (5)  a  precipice,  (6)  a  glen,  (7)  a 
filtering-gallery,  (8)  a  stand-pipe,  (9)  a  canal,  (10)  a 
dime,  (11)  a  cove  (12)  a  cape,  (13)  a  prairie^  (14) 
a  moor,  (15)  a  plain. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  45 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  What  vision  did  the  song 
of  the  thrush  present  to  the  eyes  of  "poor  Susan".  3. 
Describe  Susan  as  she  is  at  the  time  of  the  vision  and  as 
she  was  when  the  vision  was  reahty.  4.  Recall  some 
scene  of  your  own  childhood  and  present  a  word  picture 
of  it. 

THE  REVERIE  OF  POOR  SUSAN. 

At  the  comer  of  Wood  Street,  when  daylight  appears, 
Hangs  a  Thrush  that  sings  loud,  it  has  sung  for  three  years: 
Poor  Susan  has  pass'd  by  the  spot,  and  has  heard 
In  the  silence  of  morning  the  song  of  the  bird. 

'Tis  a  note  of  enchantment;  what  ails  her?   She  sees 
A  moimtain  ascending,  a  vision  of  trees; 
Bright  volumes  of  vapour  through  Lothbury  gUde, 
And  a  river  flows  on  through  the  vale  of  Cheapside. 

Green  pastures  she  views  in  the  midst  of  the  dale 
Down  which  she  so  often  has  tripp'd  with  her  pail; 
And  a  single  small  cottage,  a  nest  like  a  dove's, 
The  one  only  dwelling  on  earth  that  she  loves. 

She  looks,  and  her  heart  is  in  heaven:  but  they  fade, 
The  mist  and  the  river,  the  hill  and  the  shade; 
The  stream  will  not  flow,  and  the  hill  wiU  not  rise. 
And  the  colours  have  all  pass'd  away  from  her  eyesi 

— W,  Wordsuwrth. 


LESSON  X 

I.  Choice  of  Words  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 
S3monyms. 

1.  Often  in  using  words  the  question  is  not  so  much, 
**What  word  will  be  correct  to  use  in  this  place?"  as, 
*'What  word  is  best  to  use  in  this  place,  either  to  make 
the  idea  perfectly  clear  to  the  reader  or  to  give  further 
explanation  of  the  idea?  "  That  is  to  say,  we  should  not 
use  words  carelessly,  but  should  exercise  the  greatest 
precision  and  judgment  in  their  choice.  For  example,  we 
may  have  before  us  the  following  list  of  words:  inquisi- 
tivcj  inquiring,  meddlesome,  peeping,  prying,  curious. 
These  words  at  first  glance  seem  to  name  the  same 
characteristic,  but  careful  examination  will  show  that 
there  is  a  shade  of  difference  in  their  meaning.  We 
might  need  to  use  several  of  the  words  to  make  our  idea 
clear. 

2.  The  words  given  in  the  list  above  may  be  called 
S3monyms.  Sjmonyms  are  names  which  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  same  thing.  Sometimes,  however,  a 
synonym  may  be  used  incorrectly;  as  for  example,  we 
may  say  a  notorious  thief  and  a  celebrated  author,  when 
it  might  be  wrong  to  say  a  celebrated  thief  and  a  notorious 
author.  We  say  loosely,  ^'The  battle  of  Lexington'' 
when  it  was  hardly  more  than  a  fight.  These  examples 
serve  to  show  us  that  in  using  a  synonym,  we  should 
not  think  of  the  sjnionym  only,  but  of  the  idea  which 
the  synonym  is  to  set  forth. 

46 


USE  OP  THE  SYNONYM  47 

3.  The  dictionary  will  give  us  lists  of  sjmonyms; 
sometimes,  sentences  to  illustrate  their  use;  and  always, 
their  meaning.  We  shall  have  to  exercise  our  own  judg- 
ment in  our  choice  of  a  word. 

Exercise  1.  In  the  following  extracts  find  synonyms:— 

Addison  sat  for  Malmsbury  in  the  House  of  Commons  which  was 
elected  in  1708.  But  the  House  of  Commons  was  not  the  field  for 
him.  The  bashfulness  of  his  nature  made  his  wit  and  eloquence 
useless  in  debate.  He  once  rose,  but  could  not  overcome  his  diffi- 
dence, and  ever  after  remained  silent.     .    ,     . 

To  the  excessive  modesty  of  Addison's  nature,  we  must  ascribe 
another  fault  which  generally  arises  from  a  very  different  cause. 
He  became  a  Uttle  too  fond  of  seeing  himself  surrounded  by  a  small 
circle  of  admirers,  to  whom  he  was  as  a  King,  or  rather  as  a  God. 

He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  popular  men  of  his  time; 
and  much  of  his  popularity  he  owed,  we  beUeve,  to  that  very  timidity 
which  his  friends  lamented.  That  timidity  often  prevented  him 
from  exhibiting  his  talents  to  the  best  advantage. — Macaulay: 
Life  and  Writinga  of  Addison. 

Exercise  2.  Find  words,  in  the  following  extracts, 
which  show  Macaulay's  evident  care  to  choose  the 
right  word: — 

Poetry  produces  an  illusion  on  the  eye  of  the  mind,  as  a  magic 
lantern  produces  an  illusion  on  the  eye  of  the  body.  And,  as  the 
magic  lantern  acts  best  in  a  dark  room,  poetry  effects  its  purpose 
most  completely  in  a  dark  age.  As  the  light  of  knowledge  breaks 
in  upon  its  exhibitions,  as  the  outlines  of  certainty  become  more 
and  more  definite,  and  the  shades  of  probability  more  and  more 
distinct,  the  hues  and  hneaments  of  the  phantoms  which  the  poet 
calls  up  grow  fainter  and  fainter.  We  cannot  unite  the  incompatible 
advantages  of  reality  and  deception,  the  clear  discernment  of  truth 
and  the  exquisite  enjoyment  of  fiction. — Macatday:  Milton. 


48  I^OUNDATION  ENGLISH 

There  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  be  no  more  in  his  words  than 
in  other  words.  But  they  are  words  of  enchantment.  No  sooner 
are  they  pronounced,  than  the  past  is  present  and  the  distant  near. 
New  forms  of  beauty  start  at  once  into  existence,  and  all  the  burial- 
places  of  the  memory  give  up  their  dead.  Change  the  structure 
of  the  sentence,  substitute  one  synonym  for  another,  and  the 
whole  effect  is  destroyed.  The  spell  loses  its  power;  and  he  who 
should  then  hope  to  conjure  with  it  would  find  himself  as  much 
mistaken  as  Cassim  in  the  Arabian  tale,  when  he  stood  crying, 
"Open  Wheat",  "Open  Barley",  to  the  door  which  obeyed  no  sound 
but  "Open  Sesame".— /6wi. 

Exercise  3.  Write  sentences  in  which  you  make 
choice  of  synonyms  from  the  following  lists : — 

1.  Idleness,  laziness,  indolence,  inactivity;  or,  idle, 
lazy,  indolent,  inactive. 

2.  Fluctuate,  hesitate,  oscillate,  vacillate,  waver. 

3.  Faint,  faint-hearted,  irresolute,  languid,  listless. 

4.  Excuse,  pretense,  pretext,  subterfuge. 

5.  Ignorant,  illiterate,  uninformed,  uninstructed,  unlet- 
tered, untaught. 

6.  Requite,  retaliate,  repay,  satisfy. 

7.  Disown,  disclaim,  disavow,  renounce,  repudiate, 
retract. 

8.  Compassion,  forbearance,  sympathy,  lenience, 
mercy,  justice. 

9.  Cause,  consideration,  design,  ground,  motive,  object, 
reason,  purpose. 

10.  Delight,  ecstasy,  gladness,  gratification,  happiness, 
cheer,  jollity,  satisfaction. 

n.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITION  40 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SHUTTING  OFF  THE  STEAM. 

When  it  is  found  necessary  to  shut  off  the  steam  from  the  radiator 
in  this  room,  be  sure  to  close  both  valves.  On  no  account  close 
one  valve  and  leave  the  other  open.  Any  violation  of  this  order 
will  be  reported  to  the  School-Board. 

Class  discussion. 

The  above  directions  were  printed  on  a  card  and 
placed  over  the  radiators  of  a  certain  school-house. 
Note  (1)  that  the  directions  are  brief.  Why?  Note  (2) 
that  there  are  no  waste  words  and  yet  that  every  neces- 
sary word  is  given.  What  is  gained  by  so  doing?  (3)  Why 
is  the  word  "valve"  repeated  in  the  second  sentence? 
(4)  Why  are  the  sentences  put  in  the  order  given?  Why 
not  have  had  the  second  or  third  sentence  first?  (5) 
What  words  might  be  substituted  for  "violation"? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

1.  Give  directions  for  using  a  telephone.  2.  For 
using  an  ice-cream  freezer,  or  a  meat-chopper.  3.  For 
running  a  phonograph  or  for  operating  a  camera.  4.  For 
opening  and  closing  a  transom  window.  5.  For  turning 
electric  lights  off  and  on.  6.  For  landing  a  trout,  or  a 
blue-fish,  or  a  bass.  7.  For  using  any  mechanical 
contrivance  or  device.  8.  For  spinning  a  top.  9.  For 
beating  cake.  10.  For  oiling  up  an  automobile  or 
sewing  machine. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  What  will  Corinna  see  if 
she  goes  a  Maying?  3.  Describe  a  May-walk  of  your 
own. 


50  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

CORINNA'S  MAYING. 

Get  up,  get  up  for  shame  1    The  blooming  mom 
Upon  her  wings  presents  the  god  unshorn. 
See  how  Aurora  throws  her  fair 
Fresh-quilted  colours  through  the  air: 
Get  up,  sweet  Slug-a-bed,  and  see 
The  dew  bespangling  herb  and  tree. 
Each  flower  has  wept,  and  bow'd  toward  the  east, 
Above  an  hour  since;  yet  you  not  drest, 
Nayl  not  so  much  as  out  of  bed? 
When  all  the  birds  have  matins  said, 
And  sung  their  thankful  hymns:  'tis  sin, 
Nay,  profanation,  to  keep  in, — 
Whenas  a  thousand  virgins  on  this  day, 
Spring,  sooner  than  the  lark,  to  fetch-in  May. 

Rise;  and  put  on  your  foliage,  and  be  seen 

To  come  forth,  like  the  Spring-time,  fresh  and  green 

And  sweet  as  Flora.    Take  no  care 

For  jewels  for  your  gown,  or  hair: 

Fear  not;  the  leaves  will  strew 

Gems  in  abundance  upon  you: 
Besides,  the  childhood  of  the  day  has  kept, 
Against  you  come,  some  orient  pearls  unwept: 

Come,  and  receive  them  while  the  Hght 

Hangs  on  the  dew-locks  of  the  night: 

And  Titan  on  the  eastern  hill 

Retires  himself,  or  else  stands  still 
Till  you  come  forth.    Wash,  dress,  be  brief  in  prajring; 
Few  beads  are  best,  when  once  we  go  a  Maying. 

Come,  my  Corinna,  come;  and  coming,  mark 

How  each  field  turns  a  street;  each  street  a  park 
Made  green,  and  trimm'd  with  trees:  see  how 
Devotion  gives  each  house  a  bough 
Or  branch:  Each  porch,  each  door,  ere  this, 
An  ark,  a  tabernacle  is. 

Made  up  of  white- thorn  neatly  interwove; 

As  if  here  were  those  cooler  shades  of  love. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  51 

Can  such  delights  be  in  the  street, 

And  open  fields,  and  we  not  see't? 

Come,  we'll  abroad:  and  let's  obey 

The  proclamation  made  for  May: 
And  sin  no  more,  as  we  have  done,  by  staying; 
But,  my  Corinna,  come,  let's  go  a  Maying. 

There's  not  a  budding  boy,  or  girl,  this  day, 
But  is  got  up,  and  gone  to  bring  in  May. 

A  deal  of  youth,  ere  this,  is  come 

Back,  and  with  white-thorn  laden  home. 

Some  have  despatch'd  their  cakes  and  cream, 

Before  that  we  have  left  to  dream: 
And  some  have  wept,  and  woo'd,  and  plighted  troth, 
And  chose  their  priest,  ere  we  can  cast  off  sloth: 

Many  a  green-gown  has  been  given; 

Many  a  kiss,  both  odd  and  even: 

Many  a  glance  too  has  been  sent 

From  out  the  eye.  Love's  firmament: 
Many  a  jest  told  of  the  keys  betraying 
This  night,  and  locks  pick'd: — ^Yet  we're  not  a  Maying. 

— Come,  let  us  go,  while  we  are  in  our  prime; 
And  take  the  harmless  folly  of  the  time  I 

We  shall  grow  old  apace,  and  die 

Before  we  know  our  liberty. 

Our  life  is  short;  and  our  days  run 

As  fast  away  as  does  the  sun: — 
And  as  a  vapour,  or  a  drop  of  rain 
Once  lost,  can  ne'er  be  found  again: 

So  when  or  you  or  I  are  made 

A  fable,  song,  or  fleeting  shade; 

All  love,  all  liking,  all  dehght 

Lies  drown'd  with  us  in  endless  night. 
Then  while  time  serves,  and  we  are  but  decaying, 
Come,  my  Corinnal  come,  let's  go  a  Maying. 

— B.  Herrick, 


LESSON  XI 

I.  Variety  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  In  order  to  give  variety  to  the  expression  of  our 
ideas  we  should  vary  our  vocabulary  as  far  as  good 
taste  and  good  sense  will  allow.  For  example,  if  we 
wish  to  develop  the  idea  of  size,  we  have  for  the  term 
large,  such  words  as  great,  roomy,  vast,  massive,  huge, 
capacious,  immense,  tremendous,  gigantic,  spacious,  enor- 
mous. For  the  word  very  we  may  substitute  extremely, 
excessively,  exceedingly.  For  the  word  work,  we  may  use 
toil,  task,  labor,  employment,  business,  drudgery,  study, 
stint^  vocation,  calling, 

2.  In  striving  for  variety  our  idea  is  not  so  much 
an  effort  to  strengthen  our  thought  by  choosing  a 
better  word,  as  an  effort  to  make  our  ideas  more  attractive 
to  the  reader  as  well  as  more  forcible,  and  to  prevent 
a  tiresome  monotony  of  words.  The  old  adage,  "Variety 
is  the  spice  of  life",  will  serve  in  the  expression  of  ideas, 
as  well  as  in  other  relations  of  life. 

Exercise  1.  Find  words  that  give  variety  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract.  See  if  you  could  substitute  still  other 
words. 

During  the  whole  of  a  dull,  dark,  and  soundless  day  in  the  autumn 
of  the  year,  when  the  clouds  hung  oppressively  low  in  the  heavens, 
I  had  been  passing  alone  on  horseback  through  a  singularly  dreary 
tract  of  country,  and  at  length  found  myself,  as  the  shades  of  even- 
ing drew  on,  within  view  of  the  melancholy  House  of  Usher.  I 
know  not  how  it  was  —  but,  with  the  first  glimpse  of  the  building, 
a  sense  of  insufferable  gloom  pervaded  my  spirit.    I  say  insufferable, 

52 


VARIETY  IN  THE  USE  OP  WORDS  63 

for  the  feeling  was  unrelieved  by  any  of  that  half-pleasurable, 
because  poetic,  sentiment  with  which  the  mind  usually  receives 
even  the  sternest  natural  images  of  the  desolate  or  terrible.  I 
looked  upon  the  scene  before  me  —  upon  the  mere  house,  and  the 
simple  landscape  features  of  the  domain  —  upon  the  bleak  walls  — 
upon  the  vacant,  eyelike  windows  —  upon  a  few  rank  sedges  — 
and  upon  a  few  white  trunks  of  decayed  trees  —  with  an  utter 
depression  of  soul  which  I  can  compare  to  no  earthly  sensation 
more  properiy  than  to  the  after-dream  of  the  reveller  upon  opium  — 
the  bitter  lapse  into  everyday  life  —  the  hideous  dropping  of  the 
veil.  There  was  an  iciness,  a  sinking,  a  sickening  of  the  heart  —  an 
unredeemed  dreariness  of  thought  which  no  goading  of  the  imagina- 
tion could  torture  into  aught  of  the  subKme.  What  was  it  —  I 
paused  to  think  —  what  was  it  that  so  unnerved  me  in  the  con- 
templation of  the  House  of  Usher?  It  was  a  mystery  all  insoluble; 
nor  could  I  grapple  with  the  shadowy  fancies  that  crowded  upon 
me  as  I  pondered.  ...  It  was  possible,  I  reflected,  that  a 
mere  different  arrangement  of  the  particulars  of  the  scene,  of  the 
details  of  the  picture,  would  be  suflBcient  to  modify,  or  perhaps  to 
annihilate,  its  capacity  for  sorrowful  impression,  and,  acting  upon 
this  idea,  I  reined  my  horse  to  the  precipitous  brink  of  a  black  and 
liuid  tarn  that  lay  in  unruflBed  lustre  by  the  dwelling,  and  gazed 
down — but  with  a  shudder  more  thrilling  than  before  —  upon 
the  remodelled  and  inverted  images  of  the  gray  sedge,  and  the 
ghastly  tree-stems,  and  the  vacant  and  eyelike  windows. — Poe: 
The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

Exercise  2.  Find  as  many  words  as  possible  to 
substitute  for  the  italicized  words  in  the  following 
expressions:  —  1.  A  pleasant  'place.  2.  A  pretty  scene. 
3.  A  little  cloud.  4.  Very  warm.  5.  A  loud  noise. 
6.  A  still  day.  7.  A  large  rock.  8.  A  beautiful  girl. 
9.  A  good  composition.  10.  A  sheltered  nook.  11.  A 
had  mistake.     12.  A  great  difference. 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Compositions. 
Read  the  following  compositions  aloud: — 


54  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

1. 

Experiment  for  Transmitting  Sound- Waves. 

Lay  a  watch  with  its  back  downward,  on  a  long  board  (or  table) 
near  to  one  of  its  ends,  and  cover  the  watch  with  loo8«  folds  of 
cloth  till  its  ticking  cannot  be  heard  through  the  air  in  any  direction 
at  a  distance  equal  to  the  length  of  the  board.  Now  place  the 
ear  in  contact  with  the  farther  end  of  the  board,  and  you  wiU  hear 
the  ticking  of  the  watch  very  distinctly. — Gage:  Introduction  to 
Physical  Science, 

2. 
Experiment  in  Charging  with  Electricity. 

Rub  a  rubber  comb  with  a  woolen  cloth  or  draw  it  a  few  times 
through  your  hair  (if  dry).  Hold  the  comb  over  a  handful  of  bits 
of  tissue  paper;  the  papers  quickly  jump  to  the  comb,  stick  to  it 
for  an  instant,  and  then  leap  energetically  from  it.  The  papers 
are  first  attracted  to  the  comb,  but  in  a  short  time  acquire  some  of 
its  electrification,  and  then  are  repelled. — Gage:  Introduction  to 
Physical  Science. 

Class  Discussion. 

1.  Note  that  in  the  above  experiments,  materials 
and  directions  for  using  are  given  first,  and  results  are 
given  finally.  2.  Select  expressions  which  might  easily 
have  been  omitted  through  carelessness  and  thus  have 
made  the  experiment  come  out  wrong.  3.  What  is 
the  force  of  the  word  contact  in  the  first  selection? 
4.  What  other  words  might  have  been  used  for  dis- 
tinctly, the  last  word  in  the  first  selection?  5.  Find 
words  to  express  motion  in  the  second  selection.  6. 
What  idea  is  conveyed  to  you  by  the  use  of  the  word 
energetically?    7.  By  the  use  of  the  word  repelled? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 
1.  Explain  how  to  perform  a  simple  experiment  or  a 
trick  for  an  evening's  entertainment.    2.  Explain  how 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITION  66 

to  do  a  sleight-of-hand  performance.  3.  Explain  how 
to  perform  an  experiment  in  chemistry  or  physics  or 
biology.  4.  Explain  how  to  make  a  fancy  cake  or 
a  pudding  or  to  do  a  simple  piece  of  fancy  work.  5. 
Give  directions  for  making  a  hammered  brass  candle- 
shade.  6.  Give  directions  for  making  a  pretty  salad, 
or  a  fruit  dessert.  7.  Describe  a  new  design  or  use  for 
raffia-work.  8.  Account  for  the  reflection  of  clouds  in 
the  water  in  the  picture  opposite  page  157. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 

2.  Give  an  imaginary  word-picture  of  Dalton-Hall. 

3.  What  answer  did  the  outlaw  make  to  the  words 
of  the  maiden^s  song? 

4.  What  famous  outlaw  do  you  know  about?    Tell 
something  about  him. 

THE  OUTLAW. 

O  Brignall  banks  are  wild  and  fair, 

And  Greta  woods  are  green, 
And  you  may  gather  garlands  there 

Would  grace  a  summer-queen. 
And  as  I  rode  by  Dalton-Hall 

Beneath  the  turrets  high, 
A  Maiden  on  the  castle-wall 

Was  singing  merrily: 
"O  Brignall  banks  are  fresh  and  fair, 

And  Greta  woods  are  green; 
I'd  rather  rove  with  Edmimd  there 

Than  reign  our  English  queen." 


66  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

"If,  Maiden,  thou  wouldst  wend  with  me, 

To  leave  both  tower  and  town, 
Thou  first  must  guess  what  life  lead  we 

That  dwell  by  dale  and  down. 
And  if  thou  canst  that  riddle  read. 

As  read  full  well  you  may, 
Then  to  the  greenwood  shalt  thou  speed 

As  blithe  as  Queen  of  May." 
Yet  sung  she,  "Brignall  banks  are  fair, 

And  Greta  woods  are  green; 
I'd  rather  rove  with  Edmund  there 

Than  reign  our  EngUsh  queen. 

"I  read  you,  by  your  bugle-horn 

And  by  your  palfrey  good, 
I  read  you  for  a  ranger  sworn 

To  keep  the  king's  greenwood." 
"A  Ranger,  lady,  winds  his  horn, 

And  'tis  at  peep  of  light; 
His  blast  is  heard  at  merry  mom, 

And  mine  at  dead  of  night." 
Yet  sung  she,  "Brignall  banks  are  fair, 

And  Greta  woods  are  gay; 
I  would  I  were  with  Edmund  there 

To  reign  his  Queen  of  May! 

"With  bumish'd  brand  and  musketoon 

So  gallantly  you  come, 
I  read  you  for  a  bold  Dragoon 

That  lists  the  tuck  of  drum." 
"I  list  no  more  the  tuck  of  drum. 

No  more  the  trumpet  hear; 
But  when  the  beetle  sounds  his  hum 

My  conu-ades  take  the  spear. 
And  01  though  Brignall  banks  be  fair 

And  Greta  woods  be  gay, 
Yet  mickle  must  the  maiden  dare 

Would  reign  my  Queen  of  Mayl 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  57 

"Maiden  I  a  nameless  life  I  lead, 

A  nameless  death  I'll  die; 
The  fiend  whose  lantern  lights  the  mead 

Were  better  mate  than  II 
And  when  I'm  with  my  comrades  met 

Beneath  the  greenwood  bough, — 
What  once  we  were  we  all  forget, 

Nor  think  what  we  are  now." 

Chorus. 
"Yet  Brignall  banks  are  fresh  and  fair, 

And  Greta  woods  are  green. 
And  you  may  gather  garlands  there 
Would  grace  a  summer-queen." 

—Sir  W,  ScoU. 


LESSON  XII 

I.    Vividness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  To  gain  vividness  we  should  use  words  which  will 
make  the  reader  see  the  idea  or  image  we  have  in  mind. 
One  way  to  do  this  is  to  substitute  specific  words  for 
vague  general  words.  For  example,  quadruped,  animaly 
vessel,  are  general  words;  they  name  a  class  of  objects: 
Boston-terrier f  red-fox,  four-masted  schooner,  are  specific 
words;  they  name  the  individuals  of  a  class  of  objects. 
Of  the  two  sentences  that  follow,  which  presents  the 
idea  more  vividly,  and  why? 

A  vessel  sailed  across  the  bay. 
A  cat-boat  sped  across  the  bay. 

2.  In  the  sentences  which  follow  may  be  found  exam- 
ples of  the  way  in  which  an  idea  may  be  made  vivid  by 
the  use  of  specific  words: — 

...  a  dash  of  rain  came  swirling  across  from  the  crest  of  Ben 
Garin,  whose  steep  bulk  heaved  itself  a  blue  haystack  above  the 
level  horizon  of  the  moorland. 

.  .  .  when  the  rain  blattered  and  the  wind  raved  and  bleated 
alternately  among  the  pines  of  the  Long  Wood  of  Barbrax. 

.  .  .  where  Robert  Kirk's  dike  dipped  into  the  standing  water 
of  the  meadow. 

It  was  duskily  clear,  with  a  great  lake  of  crimson  light  dying 
into  purple  over  the  hills  of  midsunmaer  heather. 

.  ,  .  humorsome,  kindly  eyes  that  lurked  under  their  bushy 
tussocks  of  gray  eyebrow. 

It  was  a  bask  blowy  day  in  the  end  of  March,  and  there  waa  a 
hmt  of  storm  in  the  air  — 

.  .  .  where  the  mother  granite  sticks  her  bleaching  ribs  through 
the  heather. 

68 


IDEAS  IN  THE  SHORT  THEME        59 

.  .  .  the  heights  of  the  crags,  where,  under  its  shallow  coveriii^ 
of  turf  and  heather,  the  gray  teeth  of  the  granite  shone. — S,  R, 
Crockett:  The  Stickit  Minister  and  Other  Stories. 

Beyond,  red  roofs  about  a  narrow  wharf 

In  cluster;  then  a  molder'd  church;  and  higher 

A  long  street  climbs  to  one  tall  tower'd  mill. 

— Tennyson, 

Exercise  1.  Find  specific  words  in  the  following 
selections  from  a  page  in  Tennyson's  note-book: — 

1. 

In  the  "Idylls  of  the  King" 

with  all 
Its  stormy  crests  that  smote  against  the  skies. 
Suggestion: 
A  Btorm  which  came  upon  us  in  the  middle  of  the  North  Sea. 

2. 
A  great  black  cloud 
Drag  inward  from  the  deep. 
Suggestion: 
A  coming  storm  seen  from  the  top  of  Snowdon. 

3. 

A  full  sea  glazed  with  muffled  moonlight. 
Suggestion: 
The  sea  one  night  at  Torquay,  when  Torquay  was  the  most 
lovely  sea-village  in  England,  tho'  now  a  smoky  town.    The  sky 
was  covered  with  thin  vapour,  and  the  moon  was  behind  it. 

4. 

As  the  water-lily  starts  and  slides. 

Suggestion: 

Water-lilies  in  my  own  pond,  seen  on  a  gusty  day  with  my  own 

eyes.    They  did  start  and  slide  in  the  sudden  puffs  of  wind,  till 

caught  and  stayed  by  the  tether  of  their  own  stalks  —  quite  as  true 

as  Wordsworth's  simile  and  more  in  detail. 


60  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Exercise  2.     In  the  following,  find  examples  of  pic- 
tures made  vivid  by  the  use  of  specific  words: — 


I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud 

That  floats  on  high  o'er  vales  and  hills, 

When  all  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd, 

A  host  of  golden  daffodils; 

Beside  the  lake,  beneath  the  trees, 

Fluttering  and  dancing  in  the  breeze. 

Continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 

And  twinkle  on  the  milky  way. 

They  stretched  in  never-ending  line 

Along  the  margin  of  the  bay: 

Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance. 

Tossing  their  head  in  sprightly  dance. — Wordsworth. 


Paddling  gently  to  one  of  these  places,  I  was  surprised  to  find 
myself  surrounded  by  myriads  of  small  perch,  about  five  inches 
long,  of  a  rich  bronze  color  in  the  green  water,  sporting  there,  and 
constantly  rising  to  the  surface  and  dimpling  it,  sometimes  leaving 
bubbles  on  it.  In  such  transparent  and  seemingly  bottomless 
water,  reflecting  the  clouds,  I  seemed  to  be  floating  through  the 
air  as  in  a  balloon,  and  their  swimming  impressed  me  as  a  kind  of 
flight  or  hovering,  as  if  they  were  a  compact  flock  of  birds  passing 
just  beneath  my  level  on  the  right  or  left,  their  fins,  like  sails,  set 
all  around  them. — Thoreau:  Walden. 


How  some  of  us  fellows  remember  Joe  and  Harry,  Baltimoreans, 
bothi  Joe,  with  his  cheeks  like  lady-apples,  and  his  eyes  like  black- 
heart  cherries,  and  his  teeth  hke  the  whiteness  of  the  flesh  of  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  his  laugh  that  set  the  chandeher-drops  rattling  overhead 
as  we  sat  at  our  sparkling  banquets  in  those  gay  timesl  Harry, 
champion  by  acclamation,  for  the  College  heavy-weights,  broad- 
shouldered,  bull-necked,  square-jawed,  six  feet  and  trimmings, 
a  little  science,  lots  of  pluck,  good-natured  as  a  steer  in  peace, 


It      •    a  •  •  v     o 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  61 

formidable  as  a  red-eyed  bison  in  the  crack  of  hand-to-hand  battle. 
—  Holmes:  The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table. 

Exercise  3.  Find  specific  words  to  describe  the 
dogs  and  the  expression  in  their  faces  in  the  pictures 
opposite  this  page. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  compositions  aloud: — 

1. 

Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some 
few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. — Bacon. 

2. 

The  book  to  read  is  the  one  which  makes  you  think. —  Dr.  McCosh, 

3. 
Read  first  the  best  books.    The  important  thing  for  you  is  not 
how  much  you  know,  but  the  quality  of  what  you  know. — Erasmus, 

4. 
Be  sure,  then,  to  read  no  mean  books.  Shun  the  spawn  of  the 
press  or  the  gossip  of  the  hour.  Do  not  read  what  you  shall  learn, 
without  asking,  in  the  street  and  the  train.  Dr.  Johnson  said  "he 
always  went  into  stately  shops";  and  good  travelers  stop  at  the 
best  hotels;  for,  though  they  cost  more,  they  do  not  cost  much 
more,  and  there  is  the  good  company  and  the  best  information. 
In  like  manner,  the  scholar  knows  that  the  famed  books  contain, 
first  and  last,  the  best  thoughts  and  facts.  Now  and  then,  by  rarest 
luck,  in  some  foolish  Grub  Street  is  the  gem  we  want.  But  in  the 
best  circles  is  the  best  information.  If  you  should  transfer  the 
amount  of  your  reading  day  by  day  from  the  newspaper  to  the 
standard  authors  —  But  who  dare  speak  of  such  a  thing? — Emerson: 
Books. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  In  the  first  selection,  Lord  Bacon  uses  figurative 
language.    What  does  he  mean  literally?    2.  Can  you 


62  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

name  any  books  which  might  fall  into  the  three  classes? 
3.  What  books  have  you  read  or  tried  to  read  that  make 
you  think?  5.  What  does  Emerson  mean  by  the  "spawn 
of  thepress'7  6.  Who  are  meant  by  "standard  authors"? 
7.  What  example  does  Emerson  use  to  help  make  his 
thought  impressive?  8.  What  is  the  force  of  the  com- 
parison made  in  the  next  to  the  last  sentence?  9. 
Meaning  of  the  expression  "in  some  foolish  Grub  Street 
is  the  gem  we  want"? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

1.  Name  some  books  you  have  read  which  might  come 
under  the  three  classes  mentioned  by  Bacon  and  give 
your  reasons  for  so  classing  them.  2.  Tell  about  some 
book  you  have  read  which  has  made  you  think.  3. 
What  books  do  you  like  to  read  and  why?  4.  What 
is  your  opinion  of  standard  authors?  Illustrate. 
5.  Why  should  people  read  newspapers?  6.  A  "good** 
book  that  you  have  read.  Who  wrote  it?  A  fifty- 
word  summary  of  it.     Why  is  it  a  "good"  book? 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

In  the  following  poem,  the  scene  is  the  same,  but  the 
expressions  "In  the  bright  October  morning,"  and 
"In  the  dull  October  evening,"  give  the  keynote  to 
contrasting  circumstances.     Relate  those  circumstances. 

THE  HUNT. 

In  the  bright  October  morning  Savoy's  duke  had  left  his  bride. 
From  the  castle,  past  the  drawbridge,  flow'd  the  hunters'  merry  tide. 
Steeds  are  neighing,  gallants  ghttering,  gay  her  smiling  lord  to  greet, 
From  her  mullion'd  chamber-casement  smiles  the  Duchess  Mar* 
guerite. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  63 

From  Vienna,  by  the  Danube,  here  she  came,  a  bride,  in  spring, 
Now  the  autumn  crisps  the  forest;  hunters  gather,  bugles  ring. 
Hounds  are  pulling,  prickers  swearing,  horses  fret,  and  boar-spears 

glance. 
Off,  —  they  sweep  the  marshy  forests,  westward  on  the  side  of 

France. 
HarkI  the  game's  on  foot;  they  scatter,  —  down  the  forest-ridings 

lone, 
Furious,  single  horsemen  gallop.    HarkI  a  shout,  —  a  crash, — a 

groan. 
Pale  and  breathless  came  the  hunters  —  on  the  turf  dead  lies  the 

boar. 
Ah!  the  duke  lies  stretched  beside  him  senseless,  weltering  in  his  gore. 

In  the  dull  October  evening,  down  the  leaf-strewn  forest-road. 

To  the  castle,  past  the  drawbridge,  came  the  hunters  with  their 
load. 

In  the  hall,  with  sconces  blazing,  ladies  waiting  round  her  seat, 

Clothed  in  smiles,  beneath  the  dais  sate  the  Duchess  Marguerite. 

HarkI  below  the  gates  unbarring,  tramp  of  men,  and  quick  com- 
mands. 

"  'Tis  my  lord  come  back  from  hunting,"  —  and  the  duchess  claps 
her  hands. 

Slow  and  tired  came  the  hunters;  stopp'd  in  darkness  in  the  court. 

"Hoi  this  way,  ye  laggard  hunters.  To  the  hall.  What  sporti 
what  sport!" 

Slow  they  entered  with  their  master;  in  the  hall  they  laid  him  down. 

On  his  coat  were  leaves  and  blood-stains,  on  his  brow  an  angry  frown. 

Dead  her  princely  youthful  husband  lay  before  his  youthful  wife, 

Bloody  'neath  the  flaring  sconces:  and  the  sight  froze  all  her  life. 

In  Vienna,  by  the  Danube,  kings  hold  revel,  gallants  meet. 
Gay  of  old  amid  the  gayest  was  the  Duchess  Marguerite. 
In  Vienna,  by  the  Danube,  feast  and  dance  her  youth  beguiled: 
Till  that  hour  she  never  sorrow'd,  but  from  then  she  never  smiled. 
— Matthew  Arnold:  The  Church  of  Brou. 


LESSON  XIII 

I.    Review  Exercises  in  the   Expression  of  Ideas. 

Exercise  1.  From  the  following  extracts  make  a  list 
of  words  that  represent  color,  smell,  sound,  motion. 

Exercise  2.  From  the  same  extracts  find  other  speci- 
fic words. 

Exercise  3.  From  the  same  extracts  find  words  which 
are  evidently  used  only  to  give  variety. 

Not  far  from  this  village,  perhaps  about  two  miles,  there  is  & 
little  valley,  or  rather  lap  of  land,  among  high  hills,  which  is  one 
of  the  quietest  places  in  the  whole  world.  A  small  brook  glides 
through  it,  with  just  murmur  enough  to  lull  one  to  repose;  and  the 
occasional  whistle  of  a  quail,  or  tapping  of  a  woodpecker,  is  almost 
the  only  sound  that  ever  breaks  in  upon  the  imiform  tranquillity. 
— Irving:  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  HoUow. 

Thus  one  object  of  curiosity  succeeded  another;  hill,  valley, 
stream,  and  woodland  flitted  by  me  like  the  shifting  scenes  of  a 
magic-lantern,  and  one  train  of  thought  gave  place  to  another, 
till,  at  length,  in  the  after  part  of  the  day,  we  entered  the  broad 
and  shady  avenue  of  fine  old  trees  which  leads  to  the  western  gate 
of  Rouen,  and  a  few  moments  afterwards  were  lost  in  the  crowds 
and  confusion  of  its  narrow  streets.  — Longfellow:  ,Outre-Mer. 

And,  surely,  of  all  smells  in  the  world  the  smell  of  many  trees  is 
the  sweetest  and  most  fortifying.  The  sea  has  a  rude  pistoling 
sort  of  odor,  that  takes  you  in  the  nostrils  like  snuff,  and  carries 
with  it  a  fine  sentiment  of  open  water  and  tall  ships;  but  the  smell 
of  a  forest,  which  comes  nearest  to  this  in  tonic  quality,  surpasses  it 
by  many  degrees  in  the  quality  of  softness.  Again,  the  smell  of 
the  sea  has  little  variety,  but  the  smell  of  a  forest  is  infinitely  change- 
ful; it  varies  with  the  hour  of  the  day,  not  in  strength  merely,  but 

64 


THE  USE  OF  SPECIFIC  WORDS  65 

in  character;  and  the  different  sorts  of  trees,  as  you  go  from  one 
zone  of  the  wood  to  another,  seem  to  live  among  different  kinds 
of  atmosphere.  Usually  the  rosin  of  the  fir  predominates.  But 
some  woods  are  more  coquettish  in  their  habits;  and  the  breath  of 
the  forest  Mormal,  as  it  came  abroad  upon  us  that  showery  afternoon, 
was  perfumed  with  nothing  less  deUcate  than  sweetbrier. — Steven- 
son: An  Inland  Voyage. 

The  river  streamed  on  steadily  through  pleasant  river-side  land- 
scapes. Washerwomen  in  blue  dresses,  fishers  in  blue  blouses, 
diversified  the  green  banks;  and  the  relation  of  the  two  colors  was 
like  that  of  the  flower  and  the  leaf  in  the  forget-me-not.  A  syn>- 
phony  in  forget-me-not;  I  think  Th6ophile  Gautier  might  thus  have 
characterized  that  two  days*  panorama.  The  sky  was  blue  and 
cloudless;  and  the  sliding  surface  of  the  river  held  up,  in  smooth 
places,  a  mirror  to  the  heaven  and  the  shores.  The  washerwomen 
hailed  us  laughingly,  and  the  noise  of  trees  and  water  made  an 
accompaniment  to  our  dozing  thoughts,  as  we  fleeted  down  the 
stream. — Stevenson:  An  Inland  Voyage. 

It  was  a  still  summer  evening  in  the  slack  between  hay  and  harvest 
on  the  farm  of  Drumquhat.  The  Galloway  moors  rose  in  long 
purple  ridges  to  the  west.  The  sun  had  set,  and  in  the  hollows, 
pools  of  mist  were  gathering,  islanded  with  clumps  of  willow.  The 
"maister"  had  made  his  nightly  rounds,  and  was  now  meditatively 
taking  his  smoke,  leaning  on  the  gate  at  the  head  of  the  loaning, 
and  looking  over  a  green  cornfield,  through  the  raw  color  of  which 
the  first  yellow  was  beginning  to  glimmer.  From  the  village  half 
a  mile  away  he  could  hear  the  clink  of  the  smith's  anvil.  There 
came  into  his  mind  a  slow  thought  of  the  good  crack  going  on  there, 
and  he  erected  himself  as  far  as  a  habitual  stoop  would  allow  him, 
as  if  he  proposed  "daunerin' "  over  to  the  village  to  make  one  of 
the  company  in  the  heartsome  "smiddy." — S.  R.  Crockett:  The 
Stickit  Minister  and  Other  Stories. 

A  touch,  a  kiss!  the  charm  was  snapt. 

There  rose  a  noise  of  striking  clocks, 
And  feet  that  ran,  and  doors  that  clapt. 

And  barking  dogs,  and  crowing  cocks; 


66  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

A  fuller  light  illumined  all, 

A  breeze  thro'  all  the  garden  swept, 
A  sudden  hubbub  shook  the  hall, 

And  sixty  feet  the  fountain  leapt. 

The  hedge  broke  in,  the  banner  blew, 

The  butler  drank,  the  steward  scrawl'd. 
The  fire  shot  up,  the  martin  flew. 

The  parrot  scream'd,  the  peacock  squall'd, 
The  maid  and  page  renew' d  their  strife, 

The  palace  bang'd,  and  buzz'd  and  clackt, 
And  all  the  long-pent  stream  of  life 

Dash'd  downward  in  a  cataract. 

—  Tennyson:  The  Day  Dream, 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  form  some  dim  conception  of  it  [the 
Cathedral  of  Genoa]  is  to  fancy  a  little  casket,  inlaid  inside  with 
precious  stones,  so  that  there  shall  not  a  hair's-breadth  be  left 
unprecious-stoned,  and  then  to  conceive  this  Uttle  bit  of  a  casket 
increased  to  the  magnitude  of  a  great  church,  without  losing  any- 
thing of  the  excessive  glory  that  was  compressed  into  its  original 
email  compass,  but  all  its  pretty  lustre  made  sublime  by  the  conse- 
quent immensity.  —  Hawthorne:  French  and  Italian   Note  Books. 

U.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 

I  consulted  several  things  in  my  situation  which  I  foimd  would  be 
proper  for  me:  first,  air  and  fresh  water;  secondly,  shelter  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun;  thirdly,  security  from  ravenous  creatures,  whether 
men,  or  beasts;  fourthly,  a  view  of  the  sea,  that  if  God  sent  any 
ship  in  sight,  I  might  not  lose  any  advantage  for  my  deliverance, 
of  which  I  was  not  willing  to  banish  all  expectations  yet.  I  reached 
a  proper  place  for  this.  I  found  a  httle  plain  on  the  side  of  a  rising 
hill,  whose  front  towards  this  little  plain  was  steep  as  a  house-side, 
so  that  nothing  could  come  down  upon  from  the  top.  On  the  side 
of  this  rock  there  was  a  hollow  place,  worn  a  Httle  way  in,  Hke  the 
entrance  or  door  of  a  cave;  but  there  was  not  really  any  cave,  or 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  67 

way  into  the  rock  at  all.  On  the  flat  of  the  green  just  below  this 
hollow  place,  I  resolved  to  pitch  my  tent.  This  plain  was  not  above 
a  hun  dred  yards  broad,  and  about  twice  as  long,  and  lay  like  a  green 
before  my  door;  and  at  the  end  of  it,  descended  irregularly  every 
way  down  into  the  low  ground  by  the  sea-side.  It  was  on  the  N. 
W.  W.  side  of  the  hill,  so  that  it  was  sheltered  from  the  heat  every 
day,  till  it  came  to  a  W.  and  by  S.  sun,  or  thereabouts,  which  in 
those  countries  is  near  the  setting. — Defoe:  Robinson  Crusoe. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Note  that  in  the  above  selection  Robinson  Crusoe 
had  first  an  ideal  in  his  mind  of  what  the  situation  of 
his  camp  should  be,  and  that  the  rest  of  the  paragraph 
carries  out  his  ideal.  2.  What  were  the  four  necessary 
qualifications  of  the  situation?  3.  What  reason  was 
there  for  each,  one?  d.  How  was  each  requirement  met? 
Note  how  intimate  the  author  seems  to  be  with  the 
reader.    In  what  way  does  he  gain  this  air  of  intimacy? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one  of  the  folio  wing  j  or  a  subject  suggested  by 
them.  In  your  theme  give  the  necessary  requirements  and 
show  how  the  requirements  were  met. 

(1)  Where  I  pitched  my  tent,  (2)  established  my 
camp,  (3)  chose  my  fishing  excursion,  (4)  my  sum- 
mer home,  (5)  built  my  snow-fort,  (6)  planned  my 
summer  wardrobe,  (7)  held  my  picnic,  (8)  built  my 
out-door  sleeping  room. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  following  poem  aloud.  2.  Tell  the  story 
in  your  own  words.  3.  Relate  some  other  daring  deed 
that  you  have  read  in  poetry  or  in  history. 


US  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


INCIDENT  OF  THE  FRENCH  CAMP. 

You  know,  we  French  stormed  Ratisbon: 

A  mile  or  so  away, 
On  a  little  mound,  Napoleon 

Stood  on  our  storming-day; 
With  neck  out-thrust,  you  fancy  how, 

Legs  wide,  arms  locked  behind, 
As  if  to  balance  the  prone  brow 

Oppressive  with  its  mind. 

Just  as  perhaps  he  mused,  "My  plana 

That  soar,  to  earth  may  fall. 
Let  once  my  army-leader  Ltannes 

Waver  at  yonder  wall,"  — 
Out  'twixt  the  battery-smokes  there  fle«7 

A  rider,  bound  on  bound 
FuU-galloping;  nor  bridle  drew 

Until  he  reached  the  mound. 

Then  off  there  flung  in  smiling  joy. 

And  held  himself  erect 
By  just  his  horse's  mane,  a  boy: 

You  hardly  could  suspect  — 
(So  tight  he  kept  his  Ups  compressed, 

Scarce  any  blood  came  through) 
You  looked  twice  ere  you  saw  his  breast 

Was  all  but  shot  in  two. 

"Well,"  cried  he,  "Emperor,  by  God's  grace. 

We've  got  you  Ratisbon! 
The  Marshal's  in  the  market-place. 

And  you'll  be  there  anon 
To  see  your  flap-bird  flap  his  vans 

Where  I,  to  heart's  desire. 
Perched  himl"    The  chief's  eye  flashed;  his  plans 

Soared  up  again  like  fire. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  i 

The  chief's  eye  flashed;  but  presently 

Softened  itself,  as  sheathes 
A  film  the  mother-eagle's  eye 

When  her  bruised  eaglet  breathes; 
"You're  wounded!"     "Nay,"  the  soldier's  pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said: 
"I'm  killed.  Sire!"    And  his  chief  beside, 

Smiling  the  boy  fell  dead. 

—Browning. 


LESSON  XIV 

I.    More  Review  Exercises  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

Exercise  1.  In  the  following  extract  find  words  by 
which  Hawthorne  struggles  to  express  the  idea  contained 
in  his  first  sentence : — 

No  language  can  give  an  idea  of  the  beauty  and  glory  of  the  treesi 
just  at  this  moment.  It  would  be  easy,  by  a  process  of  word- 
daubing,  to  set  down  a  confused  group  of  gorgeous  colors,  like  a  bunch 
of  tangled  skeins  of  bright  silk;  but  there  is  nothing  of  the  reahty 
in  the  glare  which  would  thus  be  produced.  And  yet  the  splendor 
both  of  individual  clusters  and  of  whole  scenes  is  unsurpassable. 
The  oaks  are  now  far  advanced  in  their  change  of  hue;  and,  in  certain 
positions  relatively  to  the  sun,  they  light  up  and  gleam  with  a  most 
magnificent  deep  gold,  varying  according  as  portions  of  the  foliage 
are  in  sha/dow  or  sunlight.  On  the  sides  which  receive  the  direct 
rays,  the  efifect  is  altogether  rich;  and  in  other  points  of  view  it  is 
equally  beautiful  if  less  brilliant.  This  color  of  the  oak  is  more 
superb  than  the  lighter  yellow  of  the  maples  and  walnuts.  The 
whole  landscape  is  now  covered  with  this  indescribable  pomp;  it 
is  discerned  on  the  uplands  afar  off;  and  Blue  Hill  in  Milton,  at 
the  distance  of  several  miles,  actually  glistens  with  rich,  dark  hght,  — 
no,  not  glistens,  nor  gleams,  —  but  perhaps  to  say,  glows  subduedly 
will  be  a  truer  expression  for  it. — Hawthorne:  American  Note 
Books, 

Exercise  2.  In  the  following  extract,  the  author  is 
trying  to  show  a  contrast.  He  does  not  describe  the 
streams  of  southeastern  England,  and  yet  we  can  dis- 
cover from  his  description  of  the  Scottish  streams,  how 
they  differ.    What  words  especially  show  this  difference? 

70 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS  71 

But  perhaps  the  feature  in  these  Scottish  lowlands  which  more 
particularly  deserves  notice  here  is  the  contrast  to  be  found  between 
their  streams  and  those  of  southeastern  England.  Owing  to  the 
uneven  form  and  steeper  slope  of  the  ground,  the  drainage  runs 
off  rapidly  to  the  sea.  The  brooks  are  full  of  motion,  as  they  tiunble 
over  waterfalls,  plunge  through  rocky  ravines,  and  sweep  round 
the  boulders  that  cumber  their  channels.  They  furnish,  moreover, 
countless  dells  and  dingles  where  the  native  copsewoods  find  their 
surest  shelter.  There  the  gorse  and  the  sloe  come  earliest  into  bloom, 
and  the  wild  flowers  linger  longest.  There,  too,  the  birds  make  their 
chief  home.  These  strips  of  wild  nature,  winding  through  cultivated 
field  or  bare  moor,  from  the  hills  to  the  sea,  offer  in  summer  scenes 
of  perfect  repose.  But  they  furnish,  too,  from  time  to  time,  pictures 
of  tumult  and  uproar,  when  rain-clouds  have  burst  upon  the  uplands, 
and  the  streams  come  down  in  heavy  flood,  pouring  through  the 
glens  with  a  din  that  can  be  heard  from  afar.  —Sir  Archibald  Gdkie: 
Types  of  Scenery. 

Exercise  3.^  What  effect  is  produced  by  the  choice 
of  words  in  the  following  extracts? 

1. 

The  one  common  note  of  all  this  country  is  the  haunting  presence 
of  the  ocean.  A  great,  faint  sound  of  breakers  follows  you  high  up 
into  the  inland  canons;  the  roar  of  water  dwells  in  the  clean,  empty 
rooms  of  Monterey  as  in  a  shell  upon  the  chinmey ;  go  where  you  will 
you  have  but  to  pause  and  listen  to  hear  the  voice  of  the  Pacific. 
You  pass  out  of  the  town  to  the  southwest,  and  mount  the  hill  among 
pine  woods.  Glade,  thicket,  and  grove  surround  you.  You  follow 
winding,  sandy  tracks  that  lead  no  whither.  You  see  a  deer;  a 
multitude  of  quail  arises.  But  the  sound  of  the  sea  still  follows 
you,  as  you  advance,  like  that  of  wind  among  the  trees,  only  harsher 
and  stranger  to  the  ear;  and  when  at  length  you  gain  the  summit, 
out  breaks  on  every  hand  and  with  freshened  vigor,  that  same 
unending,  distant,  whispering  rumble  of  the  ocean;  for  now  you  are 

^Any  one  or  more,  of  Exercises  1-5  may  be  omitted  or  taken  up 
at  some  other  time  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 


72  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

on  the  top  of  Monterey  peninsula,  and  the  noise  no  longer  only 
mounts  to  you  from  behind  along  the  beach  towards  Santa  Cmz, 
but  from  your  right  also,  round  by  Chinatown  and  Pinos  lighthouse, 
and  from  down  before  you  to  the  mouth  of  the  Carmello  River. 
The  whole  woodland  is  begirt  with  thundering  surges.  The  silence 
that  immediately  surrounds  you  where  you  stand  is  not  so  much 
broken  as  it  is  haunted  by  this  distant,  circling  rumor.  It  sets 
your  senses  upon  edge;  you  strain  your  attention;  you  are  clearly 
and  unusually  conscious  of  small  sounds  near  at  hand;  you  walk 
listening  like  an  Indian  hunter;  and  that  voice  of  the  Pacific  is  a 
sort  of  disquieting  company  to  you  in  your  walk. — Stevenson: 
Across  the  Plains. 


The  Hispaniola  was  rolling  scuppers  under  in  the  ocean  swell. 
The  booms  were  tearing  at  the  blocks,  the  rudder  was  banging  to 
and  fro,  and  the  whole  ship  creaking,  groaning,  and  jumping  Uke 
a  manufactory.  I  had  to  cling  tight  to  the  backstay,  and  the  world 
turned  giddily  before  my  eyes;  for  though  I  was  good  enough  sailor 
when  there  was  way  on,  this  standing  still  and  being  rolled  about 
like  a  bottle  was  a  thing  I  never  learned  to  stand  without  a  qualm 
or  80,  above  all  in  the  morning,  on  an  empty  stomach.  — Stevenson: 
Treasure  Island. 

Exercise  4.  In  the  following  extracts  what  words 
might  have  been  used  instead  of  the  itaHcized  words: — 


Our  meeting  was  extremely  cordial,  for  the  countenance  of  an  old 
fellow-traveller  always  brings  up  the  recollection  of  a  thousand 
pleasant  scenes,  odd  adventures,  and  excellent  jokes.  To  discuss 
all  these  in  a  transient  interview  at  an  inn  was  impossible;  and  finding 
that  I  was  not  pressed  for  time,  and  was  merely  making  a  tour  of 
observation,  he  insisted  that  I  should  give  him  a  day  or  two  at  his 
father's  country  seat,  to  which  he  was  going  to  pass  the  holidays, 
and  which  lay  at  a  few  miles  distance.  "It  is  better  than  eating  a 
solitary  Christmas  dinner  at  an  inn,"  said  he,  "and  I  can  assure  you 
of  a  hearty  welcome  in  something  of  the  old-fashioned  style."    His 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS  73 

reasoning  was  cogent,  and  I  must  confess  the  preparation  I  had  seen 
for  universal  festivity  and  social  enjoyment  had  made  me  feel  a  little 
impatient  of  my  loneliness.  I  closed,  therefore,  at  once,  with  his 
invitation;  the  chaise  drove  up  to  the  door,  and  in  a  few  momenta 
I  was  on  my  way  to  the  family  mansion  of  the  Bracebridges. 

Such  being  our  chief  scene,  the  date  of  our  story  refers  to  a  period 
toward  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I,  when  his  return  from  his 
long  captivity  had  become  an  event  rather  wished  than  hoped  for 
by  his  despairing  subjects,  who  were  in  the  meantime  subjected  to 
every  species  of  subordinate  oppression.  The  nobles,  whose  power 
had  become  exorbitant  during  the  reign  of  Stephen,  and  whom  the 
prudence  of  Henry  the  Second  had  scarce  reduced  to  some  degree  of 
subjection  to  the  crown,  had  now  resumed  their  ancient  license  in 
its  utmost  extent,  despising  the  feeble  interference  of  the  EngUsh 
Council  of  State,  fortifying  their  castles,  increasing  the  number  of 
their  dependants,  reducing  all  around  them  to  a  state  of  vassalage, 
and  striving,  by  every  means  in  their  power,  to  place  themselves  each 
at  the  head  of  such  forces  as  might  enable  him  to  make  a  iBgure  in  the 
national  convulsions  which  appeared  to  be  impending. — Scott:  Ivanhoe. 

Exercise  5.  Put  the  words,  given  below  each  of  the 
following  extracts,  in  the  blank  space  where  they  seem 
to  belong: — 

1. 

In  the  background  is  a line  of  plain,  or  of rising 

heights,  tawny  or with  blue,  fairly in  tone,  as  rich 

as  in  Decamps;  and  in  this obscure  border  there  are  little 

white  specks  of houses.    Further  away  still  are  the 

backs  of  the  hills,  the saddle  of  pale  violet,  and  the 

sky, with clouds  beneath  the  afternoon  sun.    It  is  all 

on  a scale;  there  are  but  three  or  four  hues,  all in  their 

effect.    It  is  like  an of  Poussin,  but  there  is  color  and 

beyond  the  reach  of  Poussin.  —  Taine:  Journeys  through  France. 

round,  richness,  architectural,  tinged,  vast,  deep,  gently, 
long,  scattered,  curving,  flecked,  grand,  downy,  amphi- 
theater,  immeasurable. 


74  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


2. 

Young  Thomas  More  had  no  sooner the  University  than 

he  was  known  throughout  Europe  as  one  of  the figures  in 

the  new  movement  for  the  advancement  of  learning.     The  keen 

face,  the  gray eye,  the  thin Hps,  the 

brown  hair,  the gait  and  dress,  as  they  remained on 

the  canvas  of  Holbein,  picture  the soul  of  the  man,  his , 


his  restless intellect,  his  keen  and  even wit,  the  kindly, 

humor  that  drew  its veil  of  laughter  and  tears  over 

the  deep reverence  of  the  soul  within.  —  Green:  Short  History 

of  the  English  People. 

half-sad,  strange,  tender,  vivacity,  restless,  irregular, 
quitted,  foremost,  mobile,  tumbled,  stamped,  reckless, 
careless,  inner,  all-devouring. 

3. 

And  with  this  she a courtesy,  and,  taking  her  can- 
dle, went  away  through  the door  which  led  to  her  apart- 
ments; Esmond  stood  by  the  fireplace, staring  after  her. 

Indeed,  he  scarce  seemed  to  see  until  she  was  gone,  and  then  her 

image  was upon  him,   and   remained    forever upon 

his   memory.     He  saw    her the    taper her    marble 

face,  her lip ,  and  her golden  hair.  —  Thack- 
eray: Henry  Esmond. 

blankly,  retreating,  fixed,  shining,  lighting  up,  dropped, 
tapestried,  stately,  impressed,  scarlet,  quivering. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  composition  aloud: — 

1. 

Before  I  set  up  my  tent,  I  drew  a  half-circle  before  the  hollow 
place,  which  took  in  about  ten  yards  in  its  semi-diameter  from  the 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  75 

rock,  and  twenty  yards  in  its  diameter  from  its  beginning 
and  ending.  In  this  half-circle  I  pitched  two  rows  of  long  stakes, 
driving  them  into  the  ground  till  they  stood  very  firm  like  piles 
the  biggest  end  being  out  of  the  ground  about  five  feet  and  a  half, 
and  sharpened  on  the  top.  The  two  rows  did  not  stand  above  six 
inches  from  one  another.  Then  I  took  the  piece  of  cable  which  I 
cut  in  the  ship,  and  laid  them  in  rows,  one  upon  another,  within 
the  circles  between  these  two  rows  of  stakes  in  the  inside,  leaning 
against  them,  about  two  feet  and  a  half  high,  hke  a  spur  to  a  post: 
and  this  fence  was  so  strong  that  neither  man  nor  beast  could  get 
into  it  or  over  it.  This  cost  me  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor, 
especially  to  cut  the  piles  in  the  woods,  bring  them  to  the  place, 
and  drive  them  into  the  earth.  The  entrance  into  this  place  I 
made  to  be  not  by  a  door  but  by  a  short  ladder  to  go  over  the  top, 
which  ladder,  when  I  was  in,  I  lifted  over  after  me.  — Defoe:  Robin- 
son Crusoe. 

2. 

After  this,  I  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  and  pains  to  make  an 
umbrella.  I  was  indeed  in  great  walnt  of  one,  and  had  a  great 
mind  to  make  one.  I  had  seen  them  made  in  the  Brazils,  where 
they  are  very  useful  in  the  great  heats  which  are  there,  and  I  felt 
the  heats  every  jot  as  great  here,  and  greater  too,  being  nearer  the 
equinox;  besides,  as  I  was  obliged  to  be  much  abroad,  it  was  a  most 
useful  thing  to  me,  as  well  for  the  rains  as  the  heats.  I  took  a  world 
of  pains  at  it,  and  was  a  great  while  before  I  could  make  anything 
likely  to  hold;  nay,  after  I  thought  I  had  hit  the  way,  I  spoiled  two 
or  three  before  I  made  one  to  my  mind.  But  at  last  I  made  one  that 
answered  indifferently  well;  the  main  difficulty  I  found  was  to  make 
it  let  down;  I  could  make  it  spread,  but  if  it  did  not  let  down  too, 
and  draw  in,  it  would  not  be  portable  for  me  any  way  but  just  over 
my  head,  which  would  not  do.  However,  at  last,  as  I  said,  I  made 
one  to  answer.  I  covered  it  with  skins,  the  hair  upwards,  so  that  it 
cast  off  the  rain  like  a  penthouse,  and  kept  off  the  sim  so  effectually 
that  I  could  walk  out  in  the  hottest  of  the  weather  with  greater 
advantage  than  I  could  before  in  the  coolest,  and  when  I  had  no 
need  of  it  I  could  close  it,  and  cany  it  under  my  arm. — Defo$: 
Robinson  Crusoe, 


76  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Before  Robinson  Crusoe  made  his  enclosure,  he 
must  have  had  a  careful  plan  in  his  mind.  See  if  you 
can  make  a  diagram  from  his  directions.  2.  If  you  can 
make  a  diagram,  what  does  it  show  with  regard  to  the 
directions?  What  kind  of  words  are  used  in  the  two 
selections,  long  or  short?  Usual,  or  unusual?  Are 
there  any  words  that  could  have  been  omitted  without 
spoiHng  the  sense?  3.  What  do  you  think  Crusoe  did 
to  make  the  umbrella  *'let  down"  as  well  as  spread? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Explain  how  you  (1)  made  and  pitched  a  tent,  (2) 
made  and  set  a  trap,  (3)  built  a  canoe,  (4)  a  doll-house, 
(5)  a  snow-fort,  (6)  constructed  a  play-engine,  (7)  a 
kite,  (8)  a  rabbit  or  dog-house,  (  9)  how  you  set  the  table 
for  a  pink  tea  or  an  Easter  luncheon,  (10)  how  you 
made  your  wireless  outfit. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  What  fate  does  the  poet  ask  for  in  the  "downhill 
of  life"?  2.  Most  people  have  an  idea  as  to  how  they 
would  like  to  Hve  "in  the  downhill  of  Hfe".  How  are 
some  people  that  you  know  spending  it?  3.  What  ia 
your  ambition? 


TO-MORROW. 

In  the  downhill  of  life,  when  I  find  I'm  declining, 
May  my  fate  no  less  fortimate  be 

Than  a  snug  elbow-chair  will  afford  for  reclining, 
And  a  cot  that  o'erlooks  the  wide  sea; 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  77 

With  an  ambling  pad-pony  to  pace  o'er  the  lawn, 

While  I  carol  away  idle  sorrow, 
And  blithe  as  the  lark  that  each  day  hails  the  dawn 

Look  forward  with  hope  for  To-morrow. 

With  a  porch  at  my  door,  both  for  shelter  and  shade  too, 

As  the  sunshine  or  rain  may  prevail; 
And  a  small  spot  of  ground  for  the  use  of  the  spade  too, 

With  a  barn  for  the  use  of  the  flail: 
A  cow  for  my  dairy,  a  dog  for  my  game, 

And  a  purse  when  a  friend  wants  to  borrow; 
I'll  envy  no  Nabob  his  riches  or  fame, 

Or  what  honours  may  wait  him  To-morrow. 

From  the  bleak  northern  blast  may  my  cot  be  completely 

Secured  by  a  neighbouring  hill; 
And  at  night  may  repose  steal  upon  me  more  sweetly 

By  the  sound  of  a  murmuring  rill: 
And  while  peace  and  plenty  I  find  at  my  board, 

With  a  heart  free  from  sickness  and  sorrow. 
With  my  friends  may  I  share  what  To-day  may  afford, 

And  let  them  spread  the  table  To-morrow. 

And  when  I  at  last  must  throw  off  this  frail  cov'ring 

Which  I've  worn  for  three-score  years  and  ten. 
On  the  brink  of  the  grave  I'll  not  seek  to  keep  hov'ring. 

Nor  my  thread  wish  to  spin  o'er  again: 
But  my  face  in  the  glass  111  serenely  survey, 

And  with  smiles  count  each  wrinkle  and  furrow; 
As  this  old  worn-out  stuff,  which  is  threadbare  To-day, 

May  become  Everlasting  To-morrow. 

—J.  Collins, 


LESSON  XV 

I.  The  Correct  Use  of    the   Parts  of  Speech  in  the 
Expression  of  Ideas.    Verbs. 

1.  Many  grammatical  diiSiculties  beset  us  when  we 
try  to  express  our  ideas.  These  difficulties  must  be 
overcome  if  we  wish  to  make  our  speech  correct;  and 
they  can  be  overcome  only  by  knowing  the  principles 
which  govern  good  speech,  and  by  constant  application 
of  these  principles  to  our  own  speech  whether  written 
or  oral. 

2.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  we  experience  is  in 
determining  when  to  use  the  s-form  of  the  verb.  Fol- 
owing  are  some  rules  and  illustrations,  which  if  we 
apply  them  carefully  to  all  our  speech  will  help  us  to 
overcome  this  difficulty. 

(1)  Verbs  in  the  present  tense,  indicative  mode, 
having  a  subject  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
end  in  -s.     The  form  is  called  the  s-form. 

1.  I  say  I  have  I  am 

2.  You  say  You  have  You  are 

3.  He  says  He  has  He  is 

Third  Singular.    The  bird  flies. 
Third  Plural.    The  birds  fly. 

(2)  The  s-form  of  the  verb  requires  a  subject  in 
the  singular  number,  third  person. 

The  man  does  not  know  which  way  to  go. 
Note:   Was  may  be  used  with  I  or  with  a  third  singular  subject, 

78 


CORRECT  USE  OF  VERBS  79 

(3)  Words  intervening  between  the  subject  and  its 
verb  should  not  change  the  form  of  the  verb. 

The  building  (subject)  with  all  its  surroundings  was  (verb)  in  flames. 

(4)  If  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by 
and  are  modified  by  each,  every  or  many  a,  the  s-form 
of  the  verb  should  be  used. 

1.  Every  leaf  and  twig  is  moving. 

2.  Many  a  boy  and  girl  has  gone  through  this  school. 

(5)  If  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by 
and  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  the  s-form  of 
the  verb  should  be  used. 

My  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend  is  with  me. 

(6)  Two  or  more  third  singular  subjects  connected 
by  or  or  nor  require  the  s-form  of  the  verb. 

One  or  the  other  of  them  always  goes  wrong. 

When  the  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor  differ  in 
person  or  number,  the  one  nearest  the  verb  controls  the 
form. 

1.  Neither  my  parents  nor  my  teacher  knows  what  is  the  trouble. 

2.  Neither  John  nor  his  brothers  were  there. 

3.  Either  you  or  I  am  going. 

(7)  A  Collective  Noun,  though  singular  in  form 
and  usually  singular  in  meaning,  may  sometimes  be 
plural  in  meaning.  For  example,  if  we  say  "The  Com- 
mittee has  decided  to  close  the  schools  to-morrow,'* 
the  word  "Committee"  is  singular  in  meaning,  as  well 
as  in  form,  and  requires  the  s-form  of  the  verb.  If  we 
say,  "The  Committee  have  gone  to  their  homes,"  the 
word  "Committee,"  though  still  singular  in  form,  is 
plural  in  meaning,  and  thus  does  not  take  the  s-form. 


80  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

A  Collective  Noun  takes  the  s-form  when  the  group 
indicated  by  the  noun  is  considered  as  forming  a  unit. 

1.  My  family  are  widely  separated  this  summer.  {Family  consid- 
ered as  individuals.) 

2.  My  family  is  anxious  to  know  where  my  brother  is  now. 
(Family  considered  as  a  imit.) 

Exercise.  Give  the  reason  for  the  form  of  each 
verb  in  the  following  selection: — 

Of  late  years  the  number  of  writers  among  the  Cheroke6s  has 
greatly  increased.  There  are  historians  in  the  tribe  whose  works  are 
used  as  text  books  in  the  Indian  schools,  and  who  are  cited  as  authori- 
ties not  to  be  disputed.  There  are  also  Indians  who  have  written 
codes  of  law  which  before  being  put  in  permanent  form  had  been 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation.  The  Indians  today 
obey  these  laws  with  a  greater  reverence  than  they  do  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  There  are  Indian  novelists — novelists  who  devote 
their  time  to  entertaining  the  Indian  mind  with  romance,  with 
entangling  plots  and  blood-curdling  climaxes.  These  books  are 
popular  among  the  Indians.  Edition  after  edition  of  some  works  is 
published,  and  they  are  read  by  buck  and  squaw  alike. — Chicago 
Journal, 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition: — 

"The  spruce,  for  instance,  is  a  straight-trunked  tree  that  throws 
out  branches  that  ride  upward  like  crescents,  and  bear  needles  that 
hang  downward  like  fringes.  Its  outline,  when  seen  in  silhouette 
against  the  sky,  is  pyramidal;  its  color  is  dark  green,  often  blue- 
green  when  seen  from  a  distance,  and  at  twilight  it  is  cold-purple. 
The  pine  is  like  it,  but  its  branches  are  not  so  crescent-shaped,  and 
the  needles  push  outward  in  clusters  rather  than  droop  downward 
in  fringes.  It  is  of  a  darker  color  than  the  spruce,  and  at  night  or 
under  shadow,  it  is  bluer.  The  poplar  is  a  tall  tree,  and  often  a 
straight  one,  but  the  branches  do  not  swing  outward  like  the  pine. 


*^      ^^1 

^    m 

^ 

1 

J 

•  ••• 

I  <  c  a       • 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  81 

They  seek  rather  to  grow  straight  beside  the  parent  stem,  and  the 
twigs  and  the  sharp-pointed  foliage  surround  the  branches  as  a 
loose  sleeve  the  arm  of  a  woman.  It  is  white-trunked,  with  a  leaf 
that  is  bright  green  on  one  side  and  silvery  green  on  the  other  side. 
The  black  oak  grows  a  straight  trunk  with  limbs  that  shoot  out 
almost  at  right  angles ;  but  the  white  oak  and  the  pin  oak  are  crooked 
and  twisted,  their  harsh  trunks  are  often  broken  with  boles,  and 
their  limbs  may  take  angle  lines  or  prong  out  like  the  horns  of  a  deer. 
Very  different  from  such  an  angular  growth  as  the  oak  is  the  stately 
elm,  its  long  limbs  branching  and  falling  so  gracefully,  the  weeping 
willow  that  throws  its  branches  up  and  over  like  a  spray  from  a 
fountain,  the  round  ball-shaped  horse-chestnut,  or  the  long-armed, 
white-breasted  birch  of  the  mountains." — John  C,  Van  Dyke: 
Nature  for  Its  Own  Sake. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Note  that  in  the  above  composition  the  author 
is  comparing  objects  that  are  alike  in  some  respects, 
different  in  others.  He  begins  by  describing  one  tree, 
which  he  takes  as  a  standard  of  comparison.  Find  the 
description  and  read  it  aloud.  2.  In  what  order  does 
he  proceed  to  make  his  comparisons?  3.  What  are 
some  of  the  resemblances  which  he  finds?  What  are 
some  of  the  differences?  4.  In  the  pictures  given 
opposite  this  page,  what  resemblances  do  you  find? 
What  differences?  5.  One  of  these  pictures  is  a  photo- 
graph of  a  scene,  the  other  is  a  photograph  of  a  paint- 
ing. Judging  from  these  pictures,  what  should  you 
say  is  the  difference  between  what  the  camera  sees 
and  what  the  artist  sees? 

Subjects  for  written  composition* 

In  the  manner  of  the  paragraph  given  above,  set  forth 
the  distinguishing  marks  of  some  of  the  objects  in  the  fol- 


82  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

lowing  classes:  1.  Our  common  squirrels.  2.  Terriers 
3.  Long-haired  cats.  4.  Ponies.  5.  Your  little  girl- 
cousins  or  boy-cousins.  6.  Fruit-trees  in  bloom.  7.  A 
photograph  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  the  statue  given 
opposite  page  10.  8.  Some  pictures  of  the  Madonna 
and  Child.  9.  Photographs  of  myself.  10.  Leaves  of 
oak  trees  or  of  maple  trees;  or,  oak  trees;  or,  maple 
trees. 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

Reproduce  the  following  story  in  all  its  details  as 
carefully  as  possible.  Explain  the  figurative  language 
in  order  to  be  sure  of  the  imagery.  What  did  Ulysses 
do  when  he  *  ^guided  with  nice  care  the  helm"?  Why 
were  the  heights  "shadowy"? 

Translation  from  the  Odyssey, 

They  took  their  rest.   But,  when  the  child  of  dawn, 

Aurora,  rosy-fingered,  looked  abroad, 

Ulysses  put  his  vest  and  mantle  on; 

The  nymph,  too,  in  a  robe  of  silver  white. 

Ample  and  delicate  and  beautiful, 

Arrayed  herself,  and  round  about  her  loins 

Wound  a  fair  golden  girdle,  drew  a  veil 

Over  her  head,  and  planned  to  send  away 

Magnanimous  Ulysses.    She  bestowed 

A  heavy  axe  of  steel  and  double-edged. 

Well  fitted  to  the  hand,  the  handle  wrought 

Of  olive  wood,  firm  set  and  beautiful. 

A  polished  adze  she  gave  him  next,  and  led 

The  way  to  a  far  comer  of  the  isle 

Where  lofty  trees,  alders  and  poplars,  stood, 

And  firs  that  reached  the  clouds,  sapless  and  dry 

Long  since,  and  fitter  thus  to  ride  the  waves. 


EXPRESSION  OP  IDEAS  83 

Then,  having  shown  where  grew  the  tallest  trees, 
Calypso,  glorious  goddess,  sought  her  home. 

Trees  then  he  felled,  and  soon  the  task  was  done. 
Twenty  in  all  he  brought  to  earth,  and  squared 
Their  trunks  with  the  sharp  steel,  and  carefully 
He  smoothed  their  sides,  and  wrought  them  by  a  line. 
Calypso,  gracious  goddess,  having  brought 
Wimples,  he  bored  the  beams,  and,  fitting  them 
Together,  made  them  fast  with  nails  and  clamps. 
As  when  some  builder,  skilful  in  his  art. 
Frames,  for  a  ship  of  burden,  the  broad  keel, 
Such  ample  breadth  Ulysses  gave  the  raft. 
Upon  the  massy  beams  he  reared  a  deck. 
And  floored  it  with  long  planks  from  end  to  end. 
On  this  a  mast  he  raised,  and  to  the  mast 
Fitted  a  yard;  he  shaped  a  rudder  neat 
To  guide  the  raft  along  her  course,  and  round 
With  woven  work  of  willow  boughs  he  fenced 
Her  sides  against  the  dashings  of  the  sea. 
Calypso,  gracious  goddess,  brought  him  store 
Of  canvas,  which  he  fitly  shaped  to  sails, 
And,  rigging  her  with  cords  and  ropes  and  sta3r8, 
Heaved  her  with  levers  into  the  great  deep. 

'Twas  the  fourth  day;  his  labors  now  were  done, 
And,  on  the  fifth,  the  goddess  from  her  isle 
Dismissed  him,  newly  from  the  bath,  arrayed 
In  garments  given  by  her,  that  shed  perfumes. 
A  skin  of  dark  red  wine  she  put  on  board, 
A  larger  one  of  water,  and  for  food 
A  basket,  stored  with  viands  such  as  please 
The  appetite.    A  friendly  wind  and  soft 
She  sent  before.    The  great  Ulysses  spread 
His  canvas  joyfully  to  catch  the  breeze. 
And  sat  and  guided  with  nice  care  the  helm. 
Gazing  with  fixed  eye  on  the  Pleiades, 
Bootes  setting  late,  and  the  Great  Bear, 
By  others  called  the  Wain,  which,  wheeling  rounds 
Looks  ever  toward  Orion,  and  alone 
Dips  not  into  the  waters  of  the  deep. 


84  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

For  so  Calypso,  glorious  goddess,  bade 

That,  on  his  ocean  journey,  he  should  keep 

That  constellation  ever  on  his  left. 

Now  seventeen  days  were<in  the  voyage  past, 

And  on  the  eighteenth  shadowy  heights  appeared, 

The  nearest  point  of  the  Phaeacian  land, 

Lying  on  the  dark  ocean  like  a  shield. 

—Translation  of  W.  C  Bryant, 


LESSON  XVI 

I.    The  Correct  Use  of  the  Paxts  of  Speech  in  the 
Expression  of  Ideas.    Verbs. 

Exercise  i.     Give  the  reason  for  the  form  of  the 
italicized  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  She  was  one  of  those  impulsive  natures  that   long  for  a 
confidant. 

2.  The  door  of  one  cell  is  open  and  within  stand  two  figures. 

3.  The  costliness  of  his  armor  and  apparel  is  seen  at  once. 

4.  The  king,  with  his  son  and  many  of  the  nobles,  was  taken 
prisoner. 

5.  Every  book  or  magazine  on  that  shelf  contains  some  valua- 
ble reading. 

6.  Either  this  box  or  that  one  is  worth  buying  at  that  price. 

7.  Now  and  then  a  twig   or  some    dried   leaves  fall  to  the 
ground. 

8.  Many  a  field  and  many  a  hillside  has  been  the  scene  of  hard 
battles. 

9.  One  of  th-^  men  was  seen  to  run. 

10.  The  house  as  well  as  the  barns  was  humed  down. 

Exercise  2.     Rewrite  the  following  sentences  selecting 
the  proper  form  of  the  verb  enclosed  in  parentheses: — 

1.  Profusion  as  well  as  parsimony  (is,  are)  to  be  avoided. 

2.  Either  the  young  man  or  his  guardian    (has,   have)  done 
wrong. 

3.  To  choose  words  judiciously  and  to  use  them  accurately  (is, 
are)  highly  important  in  composition. 

4.  The  assembly,  one  by  one,  (is,  are)  leaving. 
6.  He  or  she  or  I  (am,  is,  are)  the  fortunate  one. 

6.  Every  bud  and  every  blossom  (is,  are)  opening  wide. 

85 


86  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

7.  The   meaning  of  words,   sentences,   and  phrases   Gs,  are) 
taken  up  in  the  class. 

8.  Neither  precept  nor  principle  (is,  are)  so  forcible  as  habit. 

9.  One  of  the  plots  (was,  were)  said  to  have  been  discovered 
by  a  noble. 

10.  There  (is,  are)  two  black  crows  on  the  fence. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions: — 


I  have  always  preferred  cheerfulness  to  mirth.  The  latter  I 
consider  as  an  act,  the  former  as  a  habit  of  the  mind.  Mirth  is 
short  and  transient,  cheerfulness  fixed  and  permanent.  Those  are 
often  raised  into  the  greatest  transports  of  mirth,  who  are  sub- 
ject to  the  greatest  depressions  of  melancholy.  On  the  contrary, 
cheerfulness,  though  it  does  not  give  the  mind  such  an  exquisite 
gladness,  prevents  us  from  faUing  into  any  depths  of  sorrow.  Mirth 
is  like  a  flash  of  Hghtning  that  breaks  through  a  gloom  of  clouds, 
and  ghtters  for  a  moment;  cheerfulness  keeps  up  a  kind  of  daylight 
in  the  mind,  and  fills  it  with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity. 

— Joseph  Addison:  The  Spectator. 


Perhaps  few  people  have  ever  asked  themselves  why  they  admire 
a  rose  so  much  more  than  all  other  flowers.  If  they  consider,  they 
will  find,  first,  that  red  is,  in  a  delicately  gradated  state,  the  loveliest 
of  all  pure  colors;  and  secondly,  that  in  the  rose  there  is  no  shadow, 
except  what  is  composed  of  color.  All  its  shadows  are  fuller  in  color 
than  in  lights,  owing  to  the  translucency  and  reflective  power  of 
the  leaves. — Rushin:  Modem  Painters, 

3. 

From  the  listless  repose  of  the  place,  and  the  peculiar  character 
of  its  inhabitants,  who  are  descendants  from  the  original  Dutch 
settlers,  this  sequestered  glen  has  long  been  known  by  the  name  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  and  its  rustic  lads  are  called  the  Sleepy  Hollow  Boys 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  87 

throughout  all  the  neighboring  country.  A  drowsy,  dreamy  in- 
fluence seems  to  hang  over  the  land,  and  to  pervade  the  very  atmos- 
phere. Some  say  that  the  place  was  bewitched  by  a  High  Ger- 
man doctor,  during  the  eariy  days  of  the  settlement;  others,  that 
an  old  Indian  chief,  the  prophet  or  wizard  of  his  tribe,  held  his  pow- 
wows there  before  the  country  was  discovered  by  Master  Hendrick 
Hudson.  Certain  it  is,  the  place  still  continues  imder  the  sway  of 
some  witching  power,  that  holds  a  spell  over  the  minds  of  the  good 
people,  causing  them  to  walk  in  a  continual  reverie.  They  are  given 
to  all  kinds  of  marvelous  beliefs;  are  subject  to  trances  and  visions; 
and  frequently  see  strange  sights,  and  hear  music  and  voices  in  the 
air.  The  whole  neighborhood  abounds  with  local  tales,  haunted 
spots,  and  twilight  superstitions;  stars  shoot  and  meteors  glare 
oftener  across  the  valley  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  and 
the  nightmare,  with  her  whole  nine  fold,  seems  to  make  it  the  favorite 
scene  of  her  gambols. — Irving:  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow, 

4. 

Of  all  the  creatures  of  commercial  enterprise,  a  canal  barge  is  by 
far  the  most  dehghtful  to  consider.  It  may  spread  its  sails,  and  then 
you  see  it  sailing  high  above  the  tree-tops  and  the  wind-mill,  sailing 
on  the  aqueduct,  sailing  through  the  green  corn-lands:  the  most 
picturesque  of  things  amphibious.  Or  the  horse  plods  along  at  a 
foot-pace  as  if  there  were  no  such  thing  as  business  in  the  world;  and 
the  man  dreaming  at  the  tiller  sees  the  same  spire  on  the  horizon  all 
day  long.  It  is  a  mystery  how  things  ever  get  to  their  destination 
at  this  rate;  and  to  see  the  barges  waiting  their  turn  at  a  lock,  affords 
a  fine  lesson  of  how  easily  the  world  may  be  taken.  There  should  be 
many  contented  spirits  on  board,  for  such  a  life  is  both  to  travel  and 
to  stay  at  home. — Stevenson:  An  Inland  Voyage. 

Class  discussion. 

The  compositions  given  above  answer  the  question, 
"Why?"  1.  What  method  does  Addison  pursue  to 
show  why  he  likes  cheerfulness  better  than  mirth? 
2.  What  reasons  does  Ruskin  give  for  our  partiality 
for  the  rose?    3.  In  the  third  composition  Irving  tells 


88  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

in  the  first  sentence  why  the  place  is  called  Sleepy- 
Hollow,  and  then  gives  illustrations.  What  are  the 
illustrations  and  what  force  have  they?  4.  In  the 
fourth  composition,  Stevenson  gives  the  real  reason 
why  "a  canal  barge  is  by  far  the  most  dehghtful  to  con- 
sider". What  is  the  reason?  How  does  the  body  of  the 
paragraph  bear  out  his  assertion?  5.  Do  you  find  any 
suggestion  of  humor  in  the  explanations  given  in  the 
third  and  fourth  compositions?  6.  Find  examples  of 
specific  words  in  the  extracts. 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one  of  the  following: — (1)  Why  I  like  books  of 
travel  or  adventure  better  than  other  kinds.  (2)  Why 
I  like  summer  better  than  winter,  or  winter  better 
than  summer.  (3)  Why  I  Hke  one  study  better  than 
another.  (4)  Why  I  like  play  better  than  work.  (5) 
Why  people  like  to  travel,  (6)  to  watch  a  game  of  foot- 
ball, (7)  to  go  to  church.  (8)  Why  people  in  general 
like  driving,  (9)  saiUng,  (10)  fishing.  (11)  Why  some 
local  place  has  received  its  name.  (12)  Why  "it  is  more 
delightful  to  consider"  sailing  craft  than  other  vessels, 
(13)  automobiles  than  other  vehicles,  (14)  country  scenes 
than  other  scenes. 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  2.  What  are  the  points 
which  the  Beech  Tree  makes  in  its  petition?  3.  What 
reasons  can  be  offered  for  preserving  the  trees  in  our 
country?  4.  Make  a  plea  for  the  oak  tree,  or  the  apple 
tree,  in  the  manner  of  the  Beech  Tree's  petition. 


SUBJECT  FOR  ORAL  THEME  89 

THE  BEECH  TREE'S  PETITION 

O  leave  this  barren  spot  to  me  I 

Spare,  woodman,  spare  the  beechen  tree  I 

Though  bush  or  floweret  never  grow 

My  dark  unwarmmg  shade  below; 

Nor  summer  bud  perfume  the  dew 

Of  rosy  blush,  or  yellow  hue; 

Nor  fruits  of  autumn,  blossom-bom, 

My  green  and  glossy  leaves  adorn; 

Nor  murmuring  tribes  from  me  derive 

Th'ambrosial  amber  of  the  hive; 

Yet  leave  this  barren  spot  to  me: 

Spare,  woodman,  spare  the  beechen  tree! 

Thrice  twenty  summers  I  have  seen 
The  sky  grow  bright,  the  forest  green; 
And  many  a  wintry  wind  have  stood 
In  bloomless,  fruitless  soUtude, 
Since  childhood  in  my  pleasant  bower 
First  spent  its  sweet  and  sportive  hour; 
Since  youthful  lovers  in  my  shade 
Their  vows  of  truth  and  rapture  made, 
And  on  my  trunk's  surviving  frame 
Carved  many  a  long-forgotten  name. 
Oh!  by  the  sighs  of  gentle  sound, 
First  breathed  upon  this  sacred  ground; 
By  all  that  Love  has  whisper'd  here, 
Or  Beauty  heard  with  ravish'd  ear; 
As  Love's  own  altar  honour  me; 
Spare,  woodman,  spare  the  beechen  tree! 

— r.  CampbeU, 


LESSON  XVII 

I.  The  Correct  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  in  the 
Expression  of  Ideas.  The  Verbs  lie  or  lay,  may 
or  can,  might  or  could. 

1.  Lie  (to  recline)  is  intransitive  and  therefore  takes 
no  object.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are  lie,  lay, 
lain. 

She  is  going  to  lie  down  for  a  little  time. 
She  lay  quietly  on  the  couch. 
She  has  lain  there  a  long  time. 

2.  Lay  (to  place)  is  transitive  and  therefore  takes  an 
object.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are  lay,  laid, 
laid. 

Lay  the  book  on  the  table. 
John  laid  the  book  on  the  table. 
John  has  laid  the  book  on  the  table. 

3.  Use  can  in  speaking  of  what  is  possible  to  do;  may 
in  speaking  of  what  is  permissible  to  do. 

"Can  I  play  in  your  yard?  " 

"  I  don't  know  whether  you  can  or  not. " 

"Well,  may  I  play  in  it?" 

"Yes,  you  may.'* 

4.  Might  and  could  follow  the  usages  of  may  and  can. 
He  might  have  gone,  but  on  account  of  his  business  he  could  not. 

Exercise  1.  Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  italicized 
verbs  in  the  following  sentences: — 

00 


CORRECT  USE  OF  VERBS  91 

1.  I  paused  to  contemplate  a  tomb  on  which  lay  the  efiSgy  of  a 
knight  in  complete  armor. 

2.  Their  struggle  has  long  been  over — they  have  gone  down 
amidst  the  roar  of  the  tempest — ^their  bones  lie  whitening  among  the 
caverns  of  the  deep. 

3.  For  some  time  Rip  lay  musing  on  this  scene. 

4.  Poor  old  Carlo  lay  under  the  crib  when  they  would  let  him, 
sometimes  rising  up  to  look  in  with  an  earnest,  sorrowful  face. 

5.  Nevertheless  the  most  domestic  cat,  which  has  lain  on  a  rug 
all  her  days,  appears  quite  at  home  in  the  woods,  and,  by  her  sly 
and  stealthy  behavior,  proves  herself  more  native  there  than  the 
regular  inhabitants. 

6.  As  the  route  of  the  friends  lay  in  the  same  direction,  they 
agreed  to  perform  the  rest  of  their  journey  together. 

7.  He  lays  aside  his  distance  and  reserve,  and  is  glad  to  waive 
the  distinctions  of  rank,  and  to  enter  into  the  honest,  heartfelt 
enjoyments  of  common  Ufe. 

8.  To  perform  the  experiment,  lay  bare  your  arm  and  stretch 
it  straight. 

9.  "Ask  your  mamma  if  you  may  go  home  with  me,"  said 
Mary.  Mary  ran  home  and  presently  came  back  crying,  "She  says 
I  may,  and  that  I  may  stay  until  tomorrow. " 

10.  How  can  she  bear  poverty?  she  has  been  brought  up  in  all 
the  refinements  of  opulence.  How  can  she  bear  neglect?  she  has 
been  the  idol  of  society. 

11.  He  who  can  turn  churlishly  away  from  contemplating  the 
felicity  of  his  fellow-beings,  and  can  sit  down  darkling  and  repining 
in  his  loneliness  when  all  around  is  joyful,  mat/  have  his  moments  of 
strong  excitement  and  selfish  gratification,  but.he  wants  the  genial  and 
social  sympathies  which  constitute  the  charm  of  a  merry  Christmas. 

12.  A  spray  could  not  tremble  in  the  breeze — a  leaf  covld  not 
rustle  to  the  ground — a  diamond  drop  could  not  patter  in  the 
stream — a  fragrance  cotdd  not  exhale  from  the  humble  violet,  nor  a 
daisy  unfold  its  crimson  tints  to  the  morning,  but  it  has  been 
noticed  by  these  impassioned  and  delicate  observers,  and  wrought 
up  into  some  beautiful  morality. 

13.  He  might  travel,  if  he  wished,  he  might  go  to  all  the 
countries  in  the  world,  but  he  prefers  to  remain  at  home. 


92  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Exercise  2.     Copy   the    following   sentences,    using 
the  proper  form  of  the  verb  in  the  parentheses: — 

1.  Mother  has  (lie,  lay)  down  on  the  sofa. 

2.  The  rain  has  (lie,  lay)  the  dust. 

3.  Two  men  (lie,  lay)  under  the  haystack  all  yesterday  morning. 
They  must  have  (lie,  lay)  there  all  night. 

4.  After  he  (lie,  lay)  down  he  remembered  that  he  had  left  his 
pocket-book  (lie,  lay)-ing  by  the  open  window. 

6.  He  has  (lie,  lay)  himself  down  for  a  while  after  dinner. 

6.  I  have  (He,  lay)  down  for  a  while,  and  I  feel  better. 

7.  You  (may,  can)  come  to  see  me  whenever  you  (may,  can)  find 
time. 

8.  You  (may,  can)  go  to  the  concert,  but  I  doubt  whether  you 
(may,  can)  find  a  seat. 

9.  (May,  can)  I  have  some  more  lemonade? 

10.  "Mother,  (may,  can)  I  go  out  skating?"  "Yes,  you  (may, 
can)  if  you  will  avoid  the  thin  ice." 

II.     Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

1. 
Read  the  following  compositions: — 

Wasp  was  a  dark  brindled  terrier,  as  pure  in  blood  as  Cruiser 
or  Wild  Dayrell.  She  was  brought  by  my  brother  from  Otley,  in 
the  West  Riding.  She  was  very  handsome,  fierce,  and  gentle,  with 
a  small,  compact,  finely-shaped  head,  and  a  pair  of  wonderful  eyes, — 
as  full  of  fire  and  of  softness  as  Grisi's;  indeed  she  had  to  my  eye  a 
curious  look  of  that  wonderful  genius — at  once  wild  and  fond.  It  was 
a  fine  sight  to  see  her  on  the  prowl  across  Bowden  Moor,  now  canter- 
ing with  her  nose  down,  now  gathered  up  on  the  top  of  a  dyke,  and 
with  erect  ears,  looking  across  the  wild  like  a  moss-trooper  out  on 
business,  keen  and  fell.  She  could  do  everything  it  became  a  dog  to 
do,  from  killing  an  otter  or  a  polecat,  to  watching  and  playing  with 
a  baby,  and  was  as  docile  to  her  master  as  she  was  surly  to  all  else. 
She  was  not  quarrelsome,  but  "being  in,"  she  would  have  pleased 
Polonius  as  much,  as  in  being  "ware  of  entrance."    She  was  never 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  93 

beaten,  and  she  killed  on  the  spot  several  of  the  country  bullies  who 
came  out  upon  her  when  following  her  master  in  his  rounds.  She 
generally  sent  them  off  howling  with  one  snap,  but  if  this  was  not 
enough|  ehe  made  an  end  of  it. — Dr.  John  Brown:  Our  Dogs. 

2/ 

Carlo  was  a  full-blooded  mastiff, — and  his  beauty,  if  he  had  any, 
consisted  in  his  having  all  the  good  points  of  his  race.  He  was  a 
dog  of  blood,  come  of  real  old  mastiff  lineage;  his  stiff,  wiry  hair,  hie 
big,  rough  paws,  and  great,  brawny  chest,  were  all  made  for  strength 
rather  than  beauty ;  but  for  all  that,  he  was  a  dog  of  tender  sentiments. 
Yet,  if  any  one  intruded  on  his  rights  and  dignities.  Carlo  showed 
that  he  had  hot  blood  in  him;  his  lips  would  go  back,  and  show  a 
glistening  row  of  ivories  that  one  would  not  Uke  to  encounter,  and  if 
any  trenched  on  his  privileges,  he  would  give  a  deep  warning  growl, 
as  much  as  to  say,  "I  am  your  slave  for  love,  but  you  must  treat  me 
well,  or  I  shall  be  dangerous."  A  blow  he  would  not  bear  from  any 
one :  the  fire  would  flash  from  his  great  yellow  eyes,  and  he  would 
snap  like  a  rifle;  yet  he  would  let  his  own  Prince  Charley  pound  on 
his  ribs  with  both  baby  fists,  and  pull  his  tail  till  he  yelped,  without 
even  a  show  of  resistance. — Harriet  Beecher  Siowe:  Our  Dog  Carlo, 
From  Our  Young  Folks. 

3. 

Toby  was  for  weeks  in  the  house  unbeknown  to  any  one  but  our- 
selves two  and  the  cook,  and  from  my  grandmother's  love  of  tidiness 
and  hatred  of  dogs  and  of  dirt  I  believe  she  would  have  expelled  "him 
whom  we  saved  from  drowning, "  had  not  he,  in  Jiis  straightforward 
way,  walked  into  my  father's  bedroom  one  night  when  he  was  bathing 
his  feet,  and  introduced  himself  with  a  wag  of  his  tail,  intimating  a 
general  willingness  to  be  happy.  My  father  laughed  most  heartily, 
and  at  last  Toby,  having  got  his  way  to  his  bare  feet,  and  having  be- 
gun to  lick  his  soles  and  between  his  toes  with  his  small  rough  tongue, 
my  father  gave  such  an  unwonted  shout  of  laughter  that  we — 
grandmother,  sisters,  and  all  of  us — went  in.  Grandmother  might 
argue  with  all  her  energy  and  skill,  but  as  surely  as  the  pressure  of 
Tom  Jones'  infantile  fist  upon  Mr.  Allworthy's  forefinger  undid  all 
the  arguments  of  his  sister,  so  did  Toby's  tongue  and  fun  prove 
too  many  for  grandmother's  eloquence.    I  somehow  think  Toby 


94  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

must  have  been  up  to  all  this,  for  I  think  he  had  a  peculiar  love  for 
my  father  ever  after,  and  regarded  grandmother  from  that  hour 
with  a  careful  and  cool  eye. — Dr.  John  Brown:  Our  Dogs. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  above  compositions, — 
to  describe,  or  to  set  forth  characteristics?  2.  Note 
that  though  the  animals  are  not  famous  for  their  beauty, 
they  are  attractive.  Why?  3.  Note  that  the  authors' 
method  of  setting  forth  characteristics  is  first  to  make 
a  statement  about  the  animal  and  then  to  substantiate 
this  statement  by  use  of  illustration  or  anecdote.  4. 
Find  comparisons  which  make  the  pictures  vivid.  5. 
Find  some  examples  of  specific  or  especially  forcible 
words. 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects  and  give  the  charac- 
teristics of  your  subject.  In  giving  these  characteristics, 
make  them  clear  by  the  use  of  ex'planation,  illustration^ 
anecdote,  comparison,  or  dialogue: — 

1.  Tabby  (or  whatever  name  your  cat  is  called). 

2.  Rover  (or  whatever  name  your  dog  is  called). 

3.  Dobbin  (or  whatever  name  your  horse  is  called). 

4.  Chirp  (or  whatever  name  your  canary  is  called). 
6.  My  little  brother  (or  sister). 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Come  into  the  class  prepared  to  tell  the  story  of 
Aladdin  and  his  Wonderful  Lamp ;  or  the  story  of  Cinder- 
ella and  the  Slipper;  or  of  Jack  and  the  Beanstalk;  or 
of  Little  Red  Riding  Hood;  or  of  Little  Goldilocks;  or 
of  Sinbad,  the  Sailor. 


LESSON  XVIII 

1.  The  Correct  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  Expres- 
sion of  Ideas.  The  Verbs  will  or  shall,  would  or 
should. 

1.  I  (or  we)  shall,  you  will,  he  (or  they)  will,  are  used 
to  express  simple  futurity. 

2.  I  (or  we)  will,  you  shall,  he  (or  we)  shall,  are  used 
to  express  a  wish,  determination,  to  give  a  command, 
to  make  a  promise  or  a  threat,  and  to  give  assurance. 

1.  We  will  (promise)  do  our  best  to  make  you  happy,  and  we  hope 
we  shall  (futurity)  succeed. 

2.  I  shall  drown  (futurity);  nobody  will  (futurity)  save  me. 

3.  He  shall  go  (determination)  or  I  will  answer  (determination) 
for  it. 

4.  I  will  take  (assurance)  care  of  you,  little  sister;  no  one  shall 
harm  (assurance)  you. 

3.  Would  and  should  usually  follow  the  same  usages 
as  will  and  shall. 

1.  I  should  go  (futurity)  if  I  could. 

2.  Would  (wish)  I  were  a  bird. 

Note:  Use  shall  or  should  with  such  adjectives  as  glad  and 
willing  so  as  not  to  express  volition  twice. 

Example — I  should  be  glad  to  go.    I  should  like  to  see  the  play. 

Exercise  1.  Combine  the  proper  form,  I  will  or 
shall,  you  mil  or  shall,  he  will  or  shall,  with  the  following 
expressions,  and  tell  why  you  use  the  form. 

1. be  glad  to  see  him. 

2. be  sorry  to  have  you  go. 

95 


96  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

3. expect  to  see  you  tomorrow. 

4.  go  by  the  earliest  train. 

6. hope  for  happier  times. 

6. pay  for  the  broken  window. 

7. do  what  you  wish. 

8.  behave  at  school. 

9.  be  obeyed  if  such  a  thing  is  possible. 

10. not  go  if  I  can  help  it. 

Exercise  2.  Which  of  the  forms  in  the  parentheses 
is  the  proper  one  to  be  used  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences?    Why? 

1.  I  (will,  shall)  meet  you  to-morrow  as  we  agreed. 

2.  You  (will,  shall)  suffer  for  your  treatment  of  me,  if  I  have  any 
authority. 

3.  There  (will,  shall)  come  a  time,  when  you  (will,  shall)  regret 
your  treatment  of  me. 

4.  We  (will,  shall)  not  soon  forget  that  picnic. 

5.  The  gathering  (will,  shall)  be  informal ;  therefore  I  (will,  shall) 
not  need  my  dress  suit. 

6.  I  (will,  shall)  be  obliged  to  you  for  yo«r  photograph  and  bo 
(will,  shall)  he. 

7.  We  (will,  shall)  be  pleased  to  have  you  call. 

8.  I  (will,  shall)  be  sorry  not  to  see  you  at  that  time,  but  I  (will, 
shall)  be  obliged  to  be  away. 

9.  I  (will,  shall)  arrive  in  Chicago  at  twelve;  but  he  (will,  shall) 
not  arrive  until  four.    You  (will,  shall)  probably  arrive  at  six. 

10.  We  (will,  shall)  not  be  contented  until  we  are  safely  home 
again. 

11.  I  (will,  shall)  instruct  thee  and  teach  thee  in  the  way  which 
thou  (wilt,  shalt)  go.     I  (will,  shall)  guide  thee  with  mine  eye. 

12.  Blessed  are  the  merciful:  for  they  (will,  shall)  obtain  mercy. 

13.  I  (should,  would)  be  glad  to  know  how  affairs  turned  out. 

14.  He  (should,  would)  be  sorry  to  lose  his  best  friend;  so  (should, 
would)  you  and  all  of  us. 

15.  I  (should,  would)  expect  him  to-morrow,  if  it  were  not  a 
holiday. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  97 

16.  They  thought  that  in  their  own  house  they  (should,  would) 
be  safe. 

17.  If  that  were  so,  we  (should,  would)  expect  him  at  once. 

18.  If  I  had  known  he  was  coming  I  (should,  would)  have  been 
spared  much  trouble. 

19.  He  thought  he  (should,  would)  hear  from  him  today. 

20.  I  (should,  would)  be  willing  to  go  anywhere  with  him. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  compositions: — 

1. 

The  plan  of  the  Spectator  must  be  allowed  to  be  both  original  and 
eminently  happy.  Every  valuable  essay  in  the  series  may  be  read 
with  pleasure  separately;  yet  the  five  or  six  hundred  essays  form  a 
whole,  and  a  whole  which  has  the  interest  of  a  novel.  It  must  be 
remembered,  too,  that  at  that  time  no  novel,  giving  a  lively  and 
powerful  picture  of  the  common  life  and  manners  of  England,  had 
appeared.  Richardson  was  working  as  a  compositor.  Fielding  was 
robbing  birds'  nests.  Smollett  was  not  yet  bom.  The  narrative, 
therefore,  which  connects  together  the  Spectator's  Essays,  gave  to 
our  ancestors  their  first  taste  of  an  exquisite  and  imtried  pleasure. 
That  narrative  was  indeed  constructed  with  no  art  or  labor.  The 
events  were  such  events  as  occur  every  day.  Sir  Roger  comes  up  to 
town  to  see  Eugenio,  as  the  worthy  baronet  always  calls  Prince 
Eugene,  goes  with  the  Spectator  on  the  water  to  Spring  Gardens, 
walks  among  the  tombs  in  the  Abbey,  and  is  frightened  by  the 
Mohawks,  but  conquers  his  apprehension  so  far  as  to  go  to  the 
theatre  when  the  Distressed  Mother  is  acted.  The  Spectator  pays 
a  visit  in  the  summer  to  Coverley  Hall,  is  charmed  with  the  old  house, 
the  old  butler,  and  the  old  chaplain,  eats  a  jack  caught  by  Will 
Wimble,  rides  to  the  assizes,  and  hears  a  point  of  law  discussed  by 
Tom  Touchy.  At  last  a  letter  from  the  honest  butler  brings  to  the 
club  the  news  that  Sir  Roger  is  dead.  Will  Honeycomb  marries  and 
reforms  at  sixty.  The  club  breaks  up;  and  the  Spectator  resigns  his 
functions.  Such  events  can  hardly  be  said  to  form  a  plot;  yet  they 
are  related  with  such  truth,  such  grace,  such  wit,  such  humor,  such 


98  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

pathos,  such  knowledge  of  the  human  heart,  such  knowledge  of  the 
ways  of  the  world,  that  they  charm  us  on  the  hundredth  perusal. 
We  have  not  the  least  doubt  that  if  Addison  had  written  a  novel, 
on  an  extensive  plan,  it  would  have  been  superior  to  any  that  we 
possess.  As  it  is,  he  is  entitled  to  be  considered  not  only  as  the 
greatest  of  the  English  essayists,  but  as  the  forerunner  of  the  great 
English  novelists. — MacauUiy:  lAfe  and  Writings  of  Addison, 


Scottish  Reminiscenses.    By  Sir  Archibald  Geikie. 

.  A  first  place  among  readable  books  must  be  given  to  this 
charming  volume  in  which  a  Scotch  scientist  of  eminence  has  set 
down  his  personal  recollections,  with  vast  amount  of  information 
gained  by  contact  with  other  men,  of  earUer  life  and  times  in  Scotland ; 
social  habits,  the  attitude  of  the  Scotch  toward  church  life  and  minis- 
terial manners,  traveling,  sport,  and  kindred  themes.  There  is 
hardly  a  page  in  the  book  which  is  not  notable  for  its  human  interest, 
hardly  a  story  which  is  not  fresh,  hardly  an  anecdote  which  would 
not  bear  retelling  for  its  wit  or  its  pathos.  The  volume  is  a  kind  of 
foot  note  to  the  more  elaborate  historical  studies  of  the  same  period; 
but  it  gives  one  far  more  of  the  life  of  the  people  than  many  a  more 
pretentious  volume. — The  Outlook, 

Class  discussion. 

1.  The  compositions  given  above  may  be  called 
"Book  Reviews".  Why?  2.  Study  the  two  reviews 
given  and  note  down  what  points  the  reviewers  have 
made  with  regard  to  the  books  reviewed.  3.  Give  a 
reason  for  the  change  of  tense  in  the  sentence  beginning, 
"Sir  Roger  comes  up  to  town,"  in  the  first  review. 
4.  Give  the  reason  for  the  use  of  may  and  can  as  they 
are  used  in  the  first  review.  5.  Give  an  excuse  for  the 
repetition  of  such  in  the  first  and  hardly  in  the  second 
review.  6.  Judging  by  the  two  illustrations  given, 
what  is  the  reviewer *s  aim  in  writing  a  review? 


SUBJECTS  FOR  C0MP'0Sll'i6N '  ''  ''-' '-''-iy'' 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Write  a  one-page  review  of  one  of  your  favorite  stories 
or  of  some  story  you  have  read  in  school.  Name  the 
book  and  the  author.  The  character  of  the  story, — 
story  of  adventure?  of  school-life?  a  love  story?  an 
historical  story?  a  romance?  Told  in  prose  or  in  poetry? 
Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  story.  What  is  the  pur- 
pose of  the  story?  Did  it  accomplish  its  purpose?  Why 
do  you  recommend  it? 

Subjects  for  oral  composition. 

1.  Read  the  following  extract  aloud.  2.  Reproduce 
the  episode  in  your  own  words.  3.  Look  up  the  story  of 
Gareth  and  Lynette,  and  tell  what  it  was  that  Gareth 
wanted  his  mother  to  let  him  do.  4.  What  was  the  point 
of  the  story  which  he  told  his  mother?  5.  What  was 
the  "brand  Excahbur''? 

"And  Gareth  went,  and  hovering  round  her  chair 
Ask'd,  'Mother,  tho'  ye  count  me  still  the  child. 
Sweet  mother,  do  ye  love  the  child?*    She  laughed, 
*Thou  art  but  a  wild-goose  to  question  it.' 
*Then,  mother,  can  ye  love  the  child,'  he  said, 
*Being  a  goose  and  rather  tame  than  wild. 
Hear  the  child's  story.'    *Yea,  my  well-beloved, 
An  'twere  but  of  the  goose  and  golden  eggs.' " 

"And  Gareth  answer'd  her  with  kindling  eyes: 

*Nay,  nay,  good  mother,  but  this  egg  of  mine 

Was  finer  gold  than  any  goose  can  lay; 

For  this  an  eagle,  a  royal  eagle,  laid 

Almost  beyond  eye-reach,  on  such  a  palm 

As  glitters  gilded  in  thy  Book  of  Hours. 

And  there  was  ever  haunting  round  the  palm 

A  lusty  youth,  but  poor,  who  often  saw 

The  splendor  sparkling  from  aloft,  and  thought, 

9 


idd  -  fcWTDATION  ENGLISH 

"An'  I  could  climb  and  lay  my  hand  upon  it, 

Then  were  I  wealthier  than  a  leash  of  kings," 

But  ever  when  he  reach'd  a  hand  to  climb, 

One  that  had  loved  him  from  his  childhood  caught 

And  stay'd  him,  "Climb  not  lest  thou  break  thy  neck, 

I  charge  thee  by  my  love,"  and  so  the  boy, 

Sweet  mother,  neither  clomb  not  brake  his  neck. 

But  brake  his  very  heart  in  pining  for  it, 

And  past  away.' " 

"To  whom  the  mother  said, 
'True  love,  sweet  son,  had  risk'd  himself  and  climb'd, 
And  handed  down  the  golden  treasure  to  him.' " 

"And  Gareth  answer 'd  her  with  kindling  eyes: 
'Gold?  said  I  gold? — ay  then,  why  he,  or  she. 
Or  whosoe'er  it  was,  or  half  the  world 
Had  ventured — had  the  thing  I  spake  of  been 
Mere  gold — but  this  was  all  of  that  true  steel 
Whereof  they  forged  the  brand  Excalibur." 

— Tennyson:  Gareth  and  Lynette, 


LESSON  XIX 

I.    The  Correct  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  in  the 
Expression  of  Ideas.    Pronouns. 

1.  The  nominative  and  objective  forms  of  pronouns* 
should  not  be  confused. 

Following  are  examples  of  correct  forms: — 

1.  It  is  I. 

2.  Whom  did  you  call? 

3.  They  were  taller  than  she. 

4.  She  is  going  with  Mary  and  me. 

2.  Before  a  verbal  noun  the  pronoun  should  be  in 
the  possessive  case. 

I  could  not  prevent  their  meeting  each  other. 

3.  Who  relates  to  persons;  which  relates  to  animals 
and  things;  that  may  relate  to  either. 

The  man  who  lives  on  the  next  farm  has  a  cow  which  gives  the 
best  milk  that  can  be  bought. 

Exercise  1.  Give  the  reason  for  the  use  of  the  form 
of  the  pronoun  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  did  not  think  of  his  being  a  coward. 

2.  You  are  as  badly  off  as  we. 

3.  Between  you  and  me,  I  do  not  believe  he  intends  to  go. 

4.  Whom  does  she  resemble,  her  father  or  her  mother? 
6.  Who  do  you  think  it  was? 

6.  Whom  do  you  take  me  to  be? 

7.  TF/wwi  did  you  say  she  looks  like? 

•[See  Appendix,  p.  234.] 

101 


102 '       - '  -  •  Foundation  English 

8.  She  has  written  letters  to  my  mother  and  me. 

9.  The  Smiths  have  come  into  the  next  house;  at  least  I  suppose 
it  is  they. 

10.  Who  knocks?    It  is  /. 

Exercise  2.  Supply  the  proper  form  of  some  pronoun 
in  the  blank  spaces : — 

1.  You  were  in  the  wrong  as  well  as . 

2.  did  you  say  did  the  deed? 


3.  It  is  a  secret  to  be  kept  between  my  mother  and , 

4.  do  men  say  that  I  am? 

6.  It  is who  are  the  culprits. 

6.  Is  there  anyone  who  has  not  done work? 

7.  I  am  not  interested  in coming  or  going. 

8. did  you  suppose  them  to  be? 

9.  You  did  just  as  well  as . 

10. did  you  say  called  this  afternoon? 

11.  Such  persons  as are  not  fit  associates  for  you. 

12.  Is  that  the  house you  bought  of  Mr.  Smith? 

13.  What  do  you  think  of going  to  college? 

14.  There  is  the  boy you  were  calling. 

15. does  Mary  look  like? 

16.  I  thought  it  was who  went. 

17.  I  took  it  to  be who  was  wanted. 

18.  I  am , you  wanted. 

19.  The  man  to you  were  speaking  was  my  father. 

20.  The  man you  wish  to  see  is  out  at  present. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions: — 

1. 

I  was  always  fond  of  visiting  new  scenes,  and  observing  strange 
characters  and  manners.  Even  when  a  mere  child  I  began  my 
travels,  and  made  many  tours  of  discovery  into  foreign  parts  and 
unknown  regions  of  my  native  city,  to  the  frequent  alarm  of  my 


IDEAS  IN  THE  SHORT  THEME  103 

parents,  and  the  emolument  of  the  town-crier.  As  I  grew  into  boy- 
hood, I  extended  the  range  of  my  observations.  My  holiday  after- 
noons were  spent  in  rambles  about  the  surrounding  country.  I 
made  myself  familiar  with  all  its  places  famous  in  history  or  fable. 
I  knew  every  spot  where  a  murder  or  robbery  had  been  conmiitted, 
or  a  ghost  seen.  I  visited  the  neighboring  villages,  and  added 
greatly  to  my  stock  of  knowledge,  by  noting  their  habits  and  customs, 
and  conversing  with  their  sages  and  great  men.  I  even  journeyed 
one  long  summer's  day  to  the  summit  of  the  most  distant  hill,  whence 
I  stretched  my  eye  over  many  a  mile  of  terra  incognita,  and  was 
afltonished  to  find  how  vast  a  globe  I  inhabited. — Irving:  The  Sketch 
Book, 

2. 

My  worthy  friend  Sir  Roger,  when  we  are  talking  of  the  malice 
of  parties,  very  frequently  tells  us  an  accident  that  happened  to 
him  when  he  was  a  school-boy,  which  was  at  a  time  when  the  feuds 
ran  high  between  the  round-heads  and  cavaliers.  This  worthy 
knight,  being  then  but  a  stripling,  had  occasion  to  inquire  which 
was  the  way  to  St.  Anne's  lane;  upon  which  the  person  whom  he  spoke 
to,  instead  of  answering  his  question,  called  him  a  young  Popish  cur, 
and  asked  him  who  had  made  Anne  a  saint.  The  boy,  being  in 
some  confusion,  inquired  of  the  next  he  met,  which  was  the  way  to 
Anne's  lane;  but  was  called  a  prick-eared  cur  for  his  pains,  and  instead 
of  being  shown  the  way,  was  told,  that  she  had  been  a  saint  before  he 
was  bom,  and  would  be  one  after  he  was  hanged.  Upon  this,  says 
Sir  Roger,  I  did  not  think  fit  to  repeat  the  former  question,  but 
going  into  every  lane  of  the  neighborhood,  asked  what  they  called 
the  name  of  that  lane.  By  which  ingenious  artifice  he  found  out 
the  place  he  inquired  after,  without  giving  offence  to  any  party. — 
Addison:  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers* 


3. 

A  calf  is  an  animal  not  to  be  fooled  with  as  we  shall  soon  learn. 
While  in  the  country  a  few  years  ago  a  boy  and  myself  discovered 
a  calf  astray  by  the  roadside.  Not  knowing  exactly  who  owned 
the  creature  we  decided  to  have  a  little  fun  with  it.    We  walked 


104  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

towards  the  calf  and  it  looked  at  us  as  much  as  to  say,  "Come  no 
farther."  We  wanted  some  adventure,  however,  so  we  took  a 
piece  of  red  cloth  and  waved  it  in  front  of  his  eyes  and  tried  to  tease 
him  to  fight,  but  it  was  with  defeat.  The  boy  who  was  with  me 
was  somewhat  younger  but  much  larger  and  stronger  than  I.  We 
had  a  long  talk  and  agreed  that  he  should  hold  the  calf  while  I  got 
on  his  back.  He  held  the  "terror"  all  right  until  I  got  on  his  back, 
but  what  happened  after  that  I  do  not  remember,  for  when  I  awoke 
or  rather  recovered  consciousness  I  was  in  the  farmer's  house,  lying 
on  a  lounge  with  a  severely  wounded  foot.  — A  School  Boy's  Theme. 


Do  you  remember  the  brown  suit  which  you  made  to  hang  upon 
you,  till  all  your  friends  cried  shame  upon  you,  it  grew  so  threadbare, 
and  all  because  of  that  folio  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  which  you 
dragged  home  late  at  night  from  Barker's  in  Covent  Garden?  Do 
you  remember  how  we  eyed  it  for  weeks  before  we  could  make  up  our 
minds  to  the  purchase,  and  had  not  come  to  a  determination  till 
it  was  near  ten  o'clock  of  the  Saturday  night,  when  you  set  off  from 
Islington  fearing  you  should  be  too  late — and  when  the  old  book- 
seller, with  some  grumbUng,  opened  his  shop,  and  by  the  twinkling 
taper  (for  he  was  setting  bed  wards),  Ughted  out  the  relic  from  his 
dusty  treasures,  and  when  you  lugged  it  home,  wishing  it  were  twice 
as  cumbersome,  and  when  you  presented  it  to  me,  and  when  we  were 
exploring  the  perfectness  of  it  (collating,  you  called  it),  and  while 
I  was  repairing  some  of  the  loose  leaves  with  paste,  which  your 
impatience  would  not  suffer  to  be  left  till  daybreak — was  there  no 
pleasure  in  being  a  poor  man?  or  can  those  neat  black  clothes  which 
you  wear  now,  and  are  so  careful  to  keep  brushed,  since  we  have 
become  rich  and  finical,  give  you  half  the  honest  vanity  with  which 
you  flaunted  it  about  in  that  overworn  suit — your  old  corbeau — for 
four  or  five  weeks  longer  than  you  should  have  done,  to  pacify  your 
conscience  for  the  mighty  sum  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  shilHngs,  was  it? — 
a  great  affair  you  thought' it  then — which  you  had  lavished  on  the 
old  foho?  Now  you  can  afford  to  buy  any  book  that  pleases  you, 
but  I  do  not  see  that  you  ever  bring  me  home  any  nice  old  purchases 
now. — Lamb:  Essay  on  Old  China, 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITION  106 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Look  up  the  definition  of  the  word  reminiscence 
and  see  if  the  term  could  properly  be  applied  to  each  of 
the  above  compositions.  2.  In  the  first  composition, 
note  the  exaggeration  of  terms.  Why  does  Irving  thus 
exaggerate?  3.  When  Sir  Roger  wanted  to  keep  on  good 
terms  with  people  he  would  say,  in  an  argument,  * 'There 
is  much  to  be  said  on  both  sides".  How  does  the  second 
composition  illustrate  this  characteristic  of  his  even  as 
a  boy?  4.  What  expressions  in  the  school-boy's  theme, 
the  third,  show  that  the  boy  who  wrote  it  had  a 
strong  sense  of  humor?  5.  In  what  way  does  the  author, 
in  the  fourth  composition  get  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
his  readers?  6.  From  the  illustrations  given,  what 
should  you  say  is  the  aim  of  a  reminiscence, — to  tell  a 
good  story  merely?  or  to  get  the  reader's  sympathy? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Give  a  reminiscence  of  something  that  has  occurred 
in  your  own  life;  for  example, — 1.  Something  that  you 
were  particularly  fond  of  doing  when  you  were  a  child. 
2.  Some  scrape  you  got  into.  3.  How  you  tried  to  be 
useful  or  brave  or  *'big"  and  were  *'taken  down"  for  it. 
4.  How  you  displayed  some  characteristic  that  you  still 
have.  5.  How  you  were  frightened  at  something  that 
would  not  now  frighten  you.  6.  How  somebody  hurt 
your  feelings  without  really  intending  to  do  so.  7.  What 
you  used  to  like  to  read.  8.  What  you  used  to  think  of 
grown  folk.  9.  What  used  to  be  your  idea  of  the 
world,  of  the  stars,  etc.  10.  Your  first  pair  of  long 
trousers.     11.  Your  first  day  at  school.     12.  Yom*  first 


106  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

doll.    13.  Your  first  friend.    14.  The  ogre  of  your  child- 
hood. 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

Opposite  this  page  is  a  picture  of  Sir  Galahad.  Tell 
the  story  of  Sir  Galahad.  What  moment  of  his  life  do 
you  think  this  picture  represents?  What  does  the  ex- 
pression in  his  face  and  bearing  indicate?  In  what 
way  is  the  spirit  of  the  picture  carried  out  by  the  attitude 
of  the  horse  and  the  setting  of  the  two  figures? 


LESSON  XX 

I.    The  Correct  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  in  the 
Expression  of  Ideas.    Adjectives  and  Adverbs. 

1.  The  use  of  the  article.  When  two  or  more  con- 
nected adjectives  describe  different  objects,  use  the 
article  with  each  adjective;  when  the  adjectives  describe 
the  same  object,  use  the  article  with  the  first  adjective 
only. 

1.  She  had  a  blue  and  white  gown.    (One  gown.) 

2.  She  had  a  white  and  a  blue  gown.    (Two  gowns.) 

2.  The  use  of  the  comparative  and  the  superlative 
degree.  When  two  objects  are  compared,  use  the 
comparative  degree;  when  more  than  two  objects  are 
compared,  use  the  superlative  degree. 

1.  Mary  is  the  prettier  of  the  two  sisters,  but  Margaret  dresses 
the  more  stylishly. 

2.  Mary  is  the  eldest  of  the  three  girls  but  Katharine  is  the  tallest. 

3.  John  is  the  most  studious  boy  in  the  school. 

3.  Hardly,  scarcely,  and  but  should  be  used  without 
the  negative. 

1.  I  hardly  see  how  I  can  go. 

2.  He  could  scarcely  see  his  way. 

3.  I  have  but  one  book. 

4.  Predicate  adjective  or  adverb?  An  adverb  should 
not  be  substituted  for  a  predicate  adjective.   An  adverb 

107 


108  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

is  used  to  describe  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb; 
a  predicate  adjective  is  used  to  describe  the  subject  of 
the  verb. 

1.  John  went  to  the  store  as  quickly  as  he  could.  (Quickly  is  an 
adverb  modifying  went.) 

2.  John  was  as  quick  as  possible  about  his  work.  (Quick  is  an 
adjective  modifying  John.) 

Note.  Good  and  had  are  never  adverbs.  A  few  words,  like  ill, 
well,  better,  best,  may  be  either  adjectives  or  adverbs  according  to 
their  use. 

5.  Tliis  and  that  should  modify  singular  nouns; 
these  and  those,  plural  nouns. 

1.  I  like  this  kind  of  an  apple. 

2.  That  sort  of  people  should  be  avoided. 

Note.  This  and  these  are  used  with  things  that  are  near;  that  and 
those  with  things  that  are  remote. 

Exercise  1.      Give  the  reason  for  the  use  of  the 

italicized  words  in  the  following  sentences : — 

1.  Of  the  two  children,  Paul  is  much  the  happier  in  disposition. 

2.  We  decided  to  have  a  full  and  a  profile  picture  of  the  children. 

3.  It  is  strange  that  the  younger  of  the  two  children  should  be 
the  taller. 

4.  I  gave  my  teacher  two  roses,  a  red  and  a  white  one. 

5.  You  present  two  arguments,  but  the  latter  seems  the  stronger 
of  the  two. 

6.  The  last  of  your  reasons  is  the  strongest. 

7.  This  class  of  people  need  to  be  watched. 

8.  As  I  watched  the  trees  I  found  that  the  growth  of  the  peach 
tree  was  the  most  rapid;  but  the  plum  tree  was  the  earliest  to  bear 
fruit. 

9.  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  people. 

10.  This  species  of  animal  is  found  at  the  North  Pole, 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  109 

Exercise  2.     Copy  the  following  sentences,  selecting 
the  proper  word  from  the  parentheses: — 

1.  We  should  dress  (good,  well)  but  not  (gaudy,  gaudily). 

2.  The  little  girl  looked  so  (sweet,  sweetly)  and  smiled  so  (shy, 
shyly)  at  me  that  I  became  her  friend  at  once. 

3.  Whenever  you  behave  (well,  good)  I  am  happy. 

4.  An  old  shoe  goes  on  (easy,  easily). 

5.  An  old  shoe  feels  (easy,  easily). 

6.  The  blind  boy  feels  his  way  along  (easy,  easily). 

7.  I  can  do  that  (easy,  easily). 

8.  The  baby  sleeps  (quiet,  quietly)  in  his  cradle. 

9.  Go  as  (quiet,  quietly)  as  possible. 

10.  That  coat  fits  you  (good,  well). 

11.  If  you  wish  to  appear  (good,  well)  in  society,  you  must  study 
good  manners. 

12.  The  rose  smells  (sweet,  sweetly). 

13.  The  sun  shines  (gay,  gaily). 

14.  Let  me  see  how  (quick,  quickly)  you  can  run. 

16.  Sweep  the  room  as  (careful,  carefully)  as  you  can. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions: — 


"Narcissus  is  said  to  have  been  extremely  beautiful  and  comely, 
but  intolerably  proud  and  disdainful;  so  that,  pleased  with  himself, 
and  scorning  the  world,  he  led  a  solitary  life  in  the  woods;  hunting 
only  with  a  few  followers,  who  were  his  professed  admirers,  amongst 
whom  the  nymph  Echo  was  his  constant  attendant.  In  this  method 
of  life  it  was  once  his  fate  to  approach  a  clear  fountain,  where  he  laid 
himself  down  to  rest,  in  the  noonday  heat;  when,  beholding  his 
image  in  the  water,  he  fell  into  such  rapture  and  admiration  of  him- 
self, that  he  could  by  no  means  be  got  away,  but  remained  con- 
tinually fixed  and  gazing,  till  at  length  he  was  turned  into  a  flower, 
oi  his  own  name,  which  appears  early  in  the  spring,  and  is  cons^ 


110  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

crated  to  the  infernal  deities, — Pluto,  Proserpine,  and  the  Furies." — 
Lord  Bacon, 

2. 

THE  STORY  OF  A  TITAN. 

In  ancient  times  before  the  white  man  ever  inhabited  this  country, 
there  lived  a  Titan  in  the  Catskill  Moimtains.  His  name  was 
Aereomendo.  He  was  of  divine  origin.  The  sun-god  was  his 
father.  His  work  was  to  clear  the  skies  from  dark  clouds.  Once 
he  disobeyed  the  order  of  his  father  to  clear  the  heavens.  Soon  it 
began  to  rain,  and  as  a  punishment  for  disobedience  his  father 
struck  him  with  a  lightning  bolt,  that  landed  him  on  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic  in  North  America.  Here  he  found  himself  surrounded 
by  a  strange  country,  with  mountains  thickly  timbered  with  forests 
of  pine.  Aereomendo  climbed  on  a  high  mountain,  and  far  away 
in  the  valley  he  oould  see  the  smoke  coming  from  wigwams,  and  a 
few  strange  looking  people  roaming  around.  He  resolved  not  to 
come  in  contact  with  them,  and  so  he  lived  in  a  huge  cave  near  the 
foot  of  a  mountain,  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  He  decided 
to  make  the  skies  around  the  Catskills  as  clear  as  he  used  to  make 
them  in  Greece,  and  that's  why  the  tourist  will  first  notice  the  clear- 
ness of  the  heavens  while  visiting  those  mountains. 

3. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  POPLAR  TREE. 

Once  there  lived  on  this  earth  a  grasping,  stingy  man.  When  he 
was  a  boy,  no  matter  how  many  apples  he  had,  he  never  gave  one 
to  his  playmates,  but  he  was  always  ready  to  receive  anything  from 
them.  After  a  while  he  grew  to  be  a  man.  As  a  man  he  was  the 
same  as  when  a  boy.  He  would  go  out  of  his  way  to  earn  a  cent  and 
he  grew  very  wealthy.  His  wealth  was  all  laid  away,  however,  and 
he  grudged  even  a  cup  of  water  to  a  beggar.  At  last  the  gods  began 
to  notice  his  stingy  ways  and  they  held  a  counsel  to  decide  what 
should  be  done  with  him.  Zeus  said,  "Let  us  change  him  to  a  tree, 
that  he  may  gloat  over  his  wealth  no  more."  Thus  it  was  decided 
by  the  gods  and  this  was  the  origin  of  the  poplar  tree.  Even  though 
he  was  changed  to  a  tree  he  did  not  lose  his  miserly  habits  for,  to 
this  day,  his  branches  are  always  folded  close  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 


CLASS  DISCUSSION  111 

4. 

SOLPHUS. 

Once  when  Solphue,  the  god  of  turtles,  was  flying  around,  he  came 
upon  one  of  his  children  in  what  would  have  proved  deadly  combat 
with  an  enormous  cobra.  In  those  days  the  turtles  had  no  shell, 
and,  as  the  cobra  was  always  their  deadly  enemy,  many  furious 
battles  took  place,  in  which  the  venomous  creatures  always  defeated 
their  enemy  by  squeezing  the  life  out  of  the  poor  turtles.  Solphus 
was  on  hand  this  time,  and  when  he  saw  the  cobra  making  an  attack 
he  caused  the  turtle  to  crawl  into  a  large  hollow  stone  lying  near  by. 
The  snake,  however,  entangled  himself  around  the  stone  in  which 
lay  the  turtle.  Pulling  to  his  utmost  the  cobra  could  not  break  the 
shell  and  soon  he  died  of  exhaustion. 

The  contest  over,  and  the  cobra  dead,  the  turtle  was  influenced 
to  come  out  of  his  shell.  He  tried  his  hardest,  but  found  that  he 
was  stuck  quite  fast,  and  from  that  day  to  this  we  have  always  seen 
the  turtle  within  a  shell. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  is  a  myth?  2.  Apply  your  definition  to  the 
above  compositions.  The  first  of  the  stories  is  an  old 
myth  retold.  The  other  three  are  myths  "made  up" 
by  pupils.  3.  Describe  the  flower  called  by  the  name 
of  Narcissus.  4.  What  is  meant  by  the  * 'infernal 
deities"?  5.  What  points  of  originality  do  you  find 
in  the  myths  made  up  by  the  pupils?  6.  Find  some 
examples  of  specific  words  used  in  these  themes. 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Choose  one.  1.  Retell  the  story  of  Echo.  2.  How  I 
met  Ceres  and  her  daughter  Proserpine.  3.  A  storm 
brought  on  by  the  Furies.  4.  Make  up  a  myth  about 
some  hill  or   stream  or  rock  in  your  neighborhood. 


112  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

5.  Make  up  a  mythical  story  about  the  scene  in  the 
picture  opposite  page  175. 

Subject  for  oral  composition. 

Describe  the  picture  opposite  this  page,  first  as  a  whole 
and  then  as  to  details.  Note  how  the  attention  is 
brought  back  to  the  central  figure  by  the  expression  on 
the  little  prince's  face  and  by  his  bearing.  Name  the 
qualities  that  you  see  there.  Is  the  pony  a  fitting  com- 
panion for  the  little  prince?  If  so,  why?  Note  how  the 
noble  details  of  the  picture  are  subordinated  to  the  cen- 
tral figure. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  SHORT  THEME 
SUMMARY  OF  PART  I,  LESSONS  I-XX. 

I.  Preliminaries. 

1.  Ideas  for  themes  may  be  gained 

a.  By  observation. 

b.  By  imagination. 

c.  By  suggestion. 

2.  Ideas  thus  gained  may  be  expressed  by  the  medium 
of  language  either  written  or  spoken.  The  language 
thus  expressed  we  call  Composition. 

3.  Composition  is  the  putting  together  of  ideas 
expressed  in  words. 

4.  The  sum  or  stock  of  words  which  we  have  at  our 
command  we  call  our  Vocabulary. 

5.  Every  written  composition  should  be  spelled  care- 
fully and  written  legibly  and  according  to  a  certain 
form.  The  copy  of  the  paper  thus  prepared  we  will  call 
the  Manuscript. 

Directions  for  preparing  the  manuscript  for  schools  will 
be  found  on  pages  3  and  4. 

II.  Clearness  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  In  order  to  convey  ideas  clearly  we  should  first 
have  clear  ideas.    Clear  ideas  may  be  obtained  by 

a.  Careful  observation. 

b.  Careful  thinking. 

c.  Careful  study. 

113 


114  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

2.  These  ideas  should  be  conveyed  in  clear  composi- 
tion. The  simplest  form  of  composition  is  the  Sentence. 
A  sentence  should  express  a  complete  thought  by  means 
of  words  that  are  grammatically  united. 

3.  The  individual  sentences  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  fact  that  each  begins  with  a  capital  and  ends  with  a 
period,  or  an  exclamation  point,  or  an  interrogation  point. 
These  marks  should  distinguish  a  complete  thought. 

4.  The  sentences  of  a  composition  in  order  to  express 
ideas  clearly  should  not  be  too  long  or  too  short.  They 
should  express  the  complete  thought;  nothing  more, 
nothing  less. 

5.  The  punctuation  of  the  sentences  of  a  composition 
often  helps  to  express  the  ideas  clearly.  While  there  are 
certain  arbitrary  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma,  the 
semi-colon,  the  colon,  the  dash,  the  apostrophe,  the 
quotation  mark, — in  general  we  punctuate  with  due 
regard  to  the  economy  of  the  reader's  attention. 

6.  In  order  to  express  ideas  clearly,  capitals  are  often 
necessary,  not  only  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  but 
at  the  beginning  of  words. 

III.  Correct  Use  of  Words  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  In  order  to  use  words  correctly  we  should  know 
the  correct  meaning  of  the  words  and  the  correct  places 
in  which  to  use  them.  A  word  which  might  be  wholly 
correct  in  one  place  might  be  wholly  incorrect  in  another. 

2.  Sometimes  the  incorrect  use  of  words  leads  to 
actual  vulgarity.    Such  words  should  be  avoided. 

IV.  Choice  of  Words  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  Often  in  using  words,  the  question  is  not  so  much, 
"What  word  will  be  correct  to  use  in  this  place?"  as 


SUMMARY  115 

"What  word  is  best  to  use  in  this  place,  either  to  make 
the  idea  perfectly  clear  to  the  reader,  or  to  give  further 
explanation?" 

2.  In  making  this  choice  of  words,  we  need  to 
think  carefully  and  to  exercise  judgment.  We  might 
need  to  use  several  words  to  express  the  same  idea. 
Such  words  would  be  called  Synonyms.  Synonyms  are 
names  which  may  be  substituted  for  the  same  thing. 

3.  Sometimes  we  choose  different  words  for  the  sake  of 
variety,  in  order  to  make  our  ideas  more  attractive  as 
well  as  more  forcible,  and  to  prevent  a  tiresome  monot- 
ony of  words. 

4.  Sometimes  we  choose  different  words  for  the  sake 
of  making  the  idea  more  vivid  to  the  reader.  One  way 
to  do  this  is  to  substitute  specific  words  for  vague  gen- 
eral words. 

V.    Correct  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  Expres-* 
sion  of  Ideas. 

1.  Many  grammatical  difficulties  beset  us  as  we  try 
to  express  our  idea.  These  difficulties  must  be  over- 
come if  we  wish  to  make  our  speech  correct;  and  they 
can  be  overcome  only  by  knowing  the  principles  which 
govern  good  speech,  and  by  constant  appHcation  of 
these  principles  to  our  own  speech  whether  written  or 
oral. 

2.  The  chief  difficulties  concern  themselves  with 

a.  Verbs. 

(1)  The  correct  use  of  the  s-form  (pp.  78-80). 
(2)  The  correct  use  of  lie  or  lay,  may  or  can, 
might  or  could  (pp.  90-92J. 


116  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

(3)  The  correct  use  of  mil  or  shallf  would  or 
should  (pp.  95-97). 

b.  Pronouns  (pp.  101-102). 

(1)  The  use  of  the  nominative  and  objective 
forms. 

(2)  The  use  before  verbal  nouns. 

(3)  The  use  of  who^  which,  and  that, 

c.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  (pp.  107-109). 

(1)  The  correct  use  of  the  article. 

(2)  The  use   of  the   comparative   and   the 
superlative  degree. 

(3)  The  use  of  hardly,  scarcely,  and  but. 

(4)  Whether  to  use  predicate  adjective  or 
adverb. 

(5)  The  correct  use  of  this  and  that,  these 
and  those. 


PARTn 

EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  FORMAL 
CORRESPONDENCE 


PART  II 

EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  FORMAL 
CORRESPONDENCE 

LESSON  XXI 

I.  How  to  Express  Ideas  in  Business  Letters.  Pre- 
liminary Matters:  Materials.  Parts  of  a  Busi- 
ness Letter. 

1.  There  are  certain  rules  of  good  taste  and  good  form 
which  govern  the  choice  of  materials  used  in  business 
correspondence  and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a 
letter. 

2.  Materials.  There  are  two  sizes  of  paper  generally 
used  in  business  correspondence:  letter-paper,  about 
8  X  10  in,  and  commercial  note,  about  5  1-2x8  in.  The 
paper  should  be  preferably  unruled  single  sheets,  and 
white  or  cream  in  color.  The  envelopes  should  be  oblong 
in  shape,  about  6x3  1-2  in.  in  size.  Blue-black  ink 
should  be  used. 

3.  Parts  of  a  Business  Letter. 

(1)  The  heading  should  contain  the  writer's  address 
in  full  and  the  date.    Thus, 

Radcliffe  College,  Upland  Road, 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  Brookline,  Mass., 

March  13, 1921.  Jan.  21,  1921. 
110 


120  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

(2)  The  address  should  contain  the  name  of  the 
person  or  persons  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent  and  the 
address.    Thus, 

Mr.  James  Smith,  The  Jordan  Marsh  Co., 

50  Fourth  Ave.,  Washington  Street, 

Cleveland,  Ohio  Boston,  Mass. 

(3)  The  salutation  is  the  formal  address  and  may 
be  put  in  various  ways.  Some  forms  in  common  usage 
are: — 

My  dear  Sir:  Dear  Sirs: 

Dear  Sir :  Gentlemen : 

(4)  The  body  of  the  letter  consists  of  the  subject 
matter  of  the  letter.  The  ideas  in  it  should  be 
clearly  expressed,  and  carefully  worded,  spelled,  punctu- 
ated, and  paragraphed.  Each  paragraph  should  cover 
a  single  point  completely. 

(5)  The  formal  closing  is  simply  a  courteous  ending 
of  the  letter.  Some  endings  in  common  usage  are: — 
Yours  truly;  Respectfully  yours;  Very  truly  yours; 
Yours  sincerely;  Yours  very  respectfully. 

(6)  The  signature  is  the  name  which  the  writer  uses 
in  signing  a  document. 

4.  Arrangement  of  the  parts. 

In  writing  business  letters  we  should  bear  in  mind 
that  the  appeal  to  the  eye  is  usually  the  appeal  to  reason, 
and  therefore  that  the  business  presented  on  a  clear 
and  attractive  page  will  be  much  more  likely  to  receive 
attention  than  an  ill-written,  carelessly-planned  scrawl. 
The  attractive  appearance  of  the  letter  depends  greatly 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  PARTS  121 

Upon  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  letter,  the 
position  of  the  parts  on  the  page,  and  the  spacing.  If 
we  have  only  a  short  message  we  should  plan  so  that  it 
will  occupy  the  middle  of  the  page.  That  is,  the  margin 
at  the  top  and  bottom  should  be  fairly  equal.  If  our 
message  is  long,  it  should  not  be  crowded  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page,  but  should  go  over  easily  to  the  next  page. 
The  various  parts  of  the  letter  should  not  float  away 
from  each  other,  but  should  be  evenly  and  carefully 
spaced.  There  should  be  a  fairly  wide  space  at  the  top 
and  at  the  left  of  the  page.  At  the  right  of  the  page 
the  words  should  come  out  evenly,  with  a  narrow  margin. 


100  Huntington  Ave., 

Boston,  Mass., 
March  8,  1921. 

Textile  Woolen  Co., 
Lowell,  Mass. 

Dear  Sirs: 

(Body  of  the  letter) 

: 

Very  truly  yours, 

John  Dowe. 

Briefly,  attention  should  he  given  to  pleasing  the  eye  by 
proper  proportion  and  spacing.  Notice  in  the  models 
given  below  how  the  parts  are  arranged  and  placed  on 
the  page  to  give  a  sense  of  proportion  and  therefore  to 
please  the  eye,  and  thus  make  the  final  appeal  to  reason. 


122  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Form  1. 


Letter-Paper. 

Siie,  about  84  x  10|  inchei. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  PARTS  123 

Form  2. 


Commercial  Note. 

Biie,  about  6^x81  inches. 


124  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Form  3. 


1155  McClurg  Bldg., 

Chicago,  III., 

July  10,  1921. 

Reed  Mills  Co., 

Rochester,  N. 

Y. 

Dear  Sirs: 

We  have 

your  notice  concerning 

the  injury  received  by  John  Gore  on  Friday, 

May  15th.      This 

is  a  slight  injury  and 

we  notice  it  only 

on  account  of  the  date. 

Do  you  not  mean 

June  15th  f 

Yours  truly. 

Liability  Ins.  Co. 

EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  125 

Exercise  1.  Arrange  on  paper  ^  and  punctuate  the 
following  headings,  addresses,  and  salutations: — 

1.  (85  Peaxl  St  Somerville  Mass  June  15  1920)  (Arnold  Furni- 
ture Co  North  Abington  Mass)    (My  dear  Sirs) 

2.  (Newton  New  Jersey  May  9  1920)  (The  Tabard  Inn  Card  Co 
1611  Chestnut  St  Philadelphia  Pa)    (Gentlemen) 

3.  (Tufts  College  Mass  March  10  1920)  (Mr  James  E  Buell 
Brown  Publishing  Co  Springfield  Mass)    (My  dear  Sir) 

Exercise  2.  Parts  of  a  letter  are  given  below.  Ar- 
range and  place  them  properly  on  letter-paper  or 
commercial-note. 

Heading:    255  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York,  May  9,  1921. 

Address:    Windmere  Mills  Co.,  Woonsocket,  R.  I. 

Salutation:    Dear  Sirs. 

Body  of  the  letter:  We  find  that  we  made  an  error  in 
our  invoice  of  April  31st  in  the  price  of  acid  brushes, 
and  are  pleased  to  enclose  herewith  credit  memo,  for 
eight  dollars  twenty-five  cents  ($8.25)  covering  the 
difference. 

Formal  closing:    Very  truly  yours. 

Signature:    Manufacturing  Supply  Co. 

n.    Expressioa  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Exercise  1.  Write  a  letter  in  answer  to  the  following 
advertisement : — 

AUTOMOBILE  to  exchange  for  country  place  on  river 
or  lake;  machine  nearly  nfew,  perfect  order,  4  cylinder 
Franklin  runabout,  extra  rumble  seat;  can  speed  40  miles 
an  hour;  new  5-gal.  heavy  copper  tank,  new  delivery  body 
easily    changed,    which    gives   two  machines  in  one,   for 

iThe  paper  used  in  the  type-writing  department  answers  admirably  for  the 
purpose  of  practice  in  writing  business  letters. 


126  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

pleasure  or  business;  very  handsome;  price  $1,200.  Send 
for  photos.  Give  full  description  and  location  of  property 
to  exchange.    Address  O  73,  Journal  Office. 

Or  2.  Write  a  letter  describing  your  puppy,  to  a  boy 
who  wishes  to  exchange  one  for  a  pair  of  rabbits. 

Or  3.  To  one  who  wishes  to  exchange  a  bicycle  for  a 
double-runner. 


LESSON  XXII 

I.    How  to  Express  Ideas  in  Business  Letters.    The 
Content. 

1.  In  writing  a  business  letter  we  should  keep  in  mind 
two  things :  first,  the  point  of  view  of  the  person  to  whom 
we  are  writing;  second,  the  settling  of  the  business  at 
hand  to  our  own  satisfaction.  The  two  things  are  so 
closely  related  that  neglect  of  the  first  may  lead  to  loss 
of  the  second. 

2.  For  example: — We  have  heard  of  a  business  firm 
which  makes  a  specialty  of  sweaters  to  supply  baseball 
and  football  teams.  We  have  seen  the  published  cata- 
logue and  we  wish  to  order  the  sweaters.  In  writing  our 
order  we  should  bear  in  mind  several  things :  first,  that 
the  business  man  to  whom  we  are  writing  is  a  busy  man. 
We  should  economize  his  time  by  saying  just  what  we 
ought  to  say  and  no  more;  second,  that  he  cannot  pos- 
sibly know  our  minds,  and  that  if  we  wish  prompt  atten- 
tion we  shall  have  to  be  very  explicit  as  to  the  number, 
color,  design,  and  price  of  the  sweaters  that  we  are  order- 
ing, and  the  way  in  which  we  shall  pay  for  them. 

3.  Or  take  another  example: — We  have  seen  an  adver- 
tisement in  the  papers  for  an  office-boy.  We  wish  to 
apply  for  the  position.  Here  again  we  should  economize 
the  business  man's  time  by  being  clear  and  explicit  in  our 
reply  to  the  advertisement.  Moreover,  in  order  to  stand 
a  chance  of  getting  the  position,  we  should  gain  the  com- 
mendation of  the  business  man  by  making  our  letter  look 

127 


128  JOtJNDATiON  ENGLlSfl 

as  well  as  possible.  We  might  get  our  order  for  sweaters 
filled,  without  giving  attention  to  the  minor  details  of 
spelling,  punctuation,  neatness,  arrangement;  but  we 
should  be  more  than  likely  not  to  obtain  the  position  of 
office  boy  if  we  did  not  give  most  careful  attention  to 
the  general  appearance  and  minor  details  of  our  letter. 

4.  Let  us  take  another  example: — We  have  a  bicycle 
which  we  wish  to  sell,  or  some  carrier  pigeons  which  we 
wish  to  dispose  of.  We  receive  a  letter  making  inquiries 
about  them,  and  after  several  days  we  reply  to  the  letter. 
What  is  the  result?  Our  correspondent  has  either  filled 
his  need  elsewhere,  or  he  has  lost  his  interest  in  the  afifair. 
We  have  lost  our  chance* 

5.  Let  us  take  still  another  example : — Our  weekly  paper 
for  some  reason  has  not  been  coming  regularly  and  we 
write  a  letter  of  inquiry  something  like  this: — *'Our 
Youth^s  Companion  did  not  come  last  week.  What  is 
the  trouble?  Answer  immediately."  Such  a  letter  may 
receive  a  reply,  but  it  is  curt,  dictatorial,  and  implies 
a  neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  publisher.  In 
other  words,  we  should  take  care  that  while  our  letters 
are  written  to  the  point,  they  are  at  the  same  time 
courteous. 

6.  In  order  then  to  have  our  business  properly  attended 
to,  we  should  regard  the  point  of  view  of  our  business 
correspondent, — 

(1)  By  making  our  business  clear  and  explicit  with  due 
regard  to  economizing  his  time. 

(2)  By  taking  the  utmost  care  to  make  our  letters  neatf 
legible,  and  correct  in  form  and  composition. 

(3)  By  being  prompt  to  reply  to  all  inquiries. 

(4)  By  being  courteous. 


EXPRESSION  OP  IDEAS  129 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Exercises  for  practice. 

1.  Write  an  order  for  sweaters,  using  the  address  of 
some  firm  in  your  own  city.  Read  the  cautions  in  2 
of  this  Lesson  carefully  before  writing, 

2.  Write  an  answer  to  such  an  advertisement  as  that 
given  in  3  and  4  of  this  Lesson. 

3.  See  if  you  can  write  a  more  courteous  letter  than 
that  given  in  5  of  this  Lesson. 

^These  exercises,  oine  or  more,  may  be  taken  up  in  class,  or  assigned 
in  place  of  the  regular  weekly  th^me. 


LESSON  XXIII 

I.  How  to  Express  Ideas  in  Business  Letters.   Details. 

1.  In  business  letters  it  is  well  to  give  a  separate  para- 
graph to  each  of  the  points  on  which  we  are  giving  infor- 
mation or  asking  for  information.  These  paragraphs 
should  present  the  points  clearly  and  definitely  and  in 
logical  order. 

2.  All  such  details  as  express^  freight,  inclosures,  and 
remittances,  should  be  carefully  mentioned. 

3.  In  replying  to  a  business  letter,  we  should  first 
acknowledge  the  receipt  of  our  correspondent's  letter 
and  the  date  on  which  it  was  written.  It  is  often  well 
to  repeat  the  substance  of  the  inquiry  or  other  business 
given  in  the  letter  to  which  we  are  replying.  All  inclos- 
ures should  be  acknowledged.  The  points  mentioned 
in  the  letter  should  then  be  answered  one  by  one,  directly 
and  definitely,  and  such  explanations  made  as  are  neces- 
sary. We  may  then  go  on  to  any  new  subject  which  we 
may  wish  to  raise. 

II.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  letters : — 

1. 

HoPEDALE,  N.  H.,  December  1, 1920. 
Merrimack  Mills  Company, 
Tewkfibury,  Mass. 
Dear  Sirs: — 

We  have  returned  to  Tewksbury,  via  American  Express,  eight 
jack-spools  charged  on  your  bill  of  November  15,  1920. 
Kindly  pass  the  same  to  our  credit  and  oblige 

HOPEDALB   MUiLS  CoifPANY. 

130 


BUSINESS  LETTERS  131 


Boston,  Mass.,  September  19, 1920. 
The  Broadway  Garage  Company, 
Lymi,  Mass. 
Dear  Sirs: — 

We  wish  respectfully  to  call  your  attention  to  your  account  as 
it  stands  on  our  books,  and  to  ask  that,  if  possible,  you  mail  us  a 
check  for  th«  amount  due, — ^nine  hundred  seventeen  dollars  and 
forty  cents  ($917.40). 

We  have  a  number  of  obligations  to  meet  the  incoming  week,  and 
an  early  and  favorable  reply  from  you  would  greatly  assist  us  in  so 
doing. 

Thanking  you  for  past  favors  and  awaiting  your  further  orders,  we 
are, 

Yours  very  truly. 

Automobile  Supply  Company. 

3. 

NoBWOOD,  Mass.,  May  15, 1920. 
Mrs.  Edward  T.  Johnson, 
Dear  Madam: — 

Your  letter  of  the  12th  inst.  is  at  hand.  In  answer  to  your 
inquiries  concerning  board  and  rooms  at  the  Naumkeag,  I  am 
Bending  a  catalogue  which  will  give  you,  I  think,  all  the  informa- 
tion you  need. 

Respectfully  yours, 

(Miss)  Ruth  Jenkb. 

Class  discussion. 

What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  letters  given 
above?  Do  you  find  any  cases  of  over-wording?  Any 
cases  where  more  explanation  seems  to  be  necessary? 
Why  was  there  any  need  of  mentioning  the  American 
Express,  or  the  number  of  spools  in  the  first  letter?  What 
answer  will  the  Automobile  Shipping  Company  expect 
to  their  letter  (Letter  2)?  What  need  was  there  of 
11 


132  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

mentioning  the  date  in  the  third  letter?    Of  repeating 
the  inquiries  given  in  Mrs.  Johnson's  letter? 

Subjects  for  Business  Letters. 
Choose  any  one  of  the  following: — 

1.  Write  an  answer  to  the  second  letter  given  above. 

2.  Improve  the  letter  given  in  paragraph  6  of  this 
lesson. 

3.  Answer  the  following  letter: — "I  see  by  last  night's 
Tribune  that  you  have  some  fancy  hens  for  sale.  Will 
you  kindly  inform  me  whether  you  have  any  Cochin 
Chinas,  and,  if  so,  when  I  may  call  to  inspect  them  with 
view  to  purchase?" 

4.  Write  for  the  booklet  here  advertised. 

The  New  York  Central  Lines'  Four-Track  Series  No.  10,  "The 
St.  Lawrence  River  from  the  Thousand  Islands  to  the  Saguenay," 
contains  the  finest  map  ever  made  of  this  region.  Copy  will  be  sent 
free,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  a  two-cent  stamp,  by  George  H.  Dane, 
Manager,  Room  28,  General  Advertising  Department,  Grand  Cen- 
tral Station,  Concord. 

5.  You  ordered  on  a  certain  date  from  the  Boothman 
Clothing  Company,  Emporia,  Kansas,  nine  sweaters. 
You  have  received  only  eight  of  them,  and  you  are  very 
anxious  to  supply  the  team  for  next  Saturday's  game. 
Write  to  the  company  about  the  matter.  Remember 
that  the  time  is  short,  and  that  you  should  therefore  be 
explicit  with  regard  to  the  kind  of  sweaters  you  ordered. 

6.  Write  a  letter  for  the  Boothman  Clothing  Company 
in  reply  to  your  letter  to  them. 

7.  Answer  a  letter  of  inquiry  for  information  concern- 
ing the  size  of  your  school,  the  courses  of  study  offered, 
and  the  certificate  privileges  given. 


LESSON  XXIV 

I.    How  to  Express  Ideas  in  Business  Letters.    Folding 
the  Letter  and  Addressing  the  Envelope. 

1.  Good  taste  and  good  form  require  as  much  care  in 
folding  the  letter  and  in  addressing  the  envelope  as  in 
writing  the  letter. 

2.  Folding  the  letter.  1.  Letter-paper.  Bring  the 
lower  edge  of  the  sheet  up  to  within  a  quarter-inch  of 
the  upper  edge,  with  the  writing  inside.  Hold  the  two 
edges  together  firmly  and  press  the  fold.  When  the 
sheet  is  thus  folded,  turn  it  one-third  from  the  right  to 
the  left,  and  one-third  from  the  left  to  the  right.  2.  Com- 
mercial  note.  Turn  the  lower  edge  up  one-third  of  the 
page,  with  the  writing  inside,  and  the  upper  edge  down 
to  fit  the  envelope. 

3.  Addressing  the  envelope.  In  addressing  the  envel" 
ope,  be  sure  to  give  the  full  address  and  to  spell  all  names 
correctly.  Write  legibly  with  due  attention  to  the  sense 
of  proportion  and  to  spacing.  In  the  upper  left  hand 
corner  of  the  envelope  write  your  own  address. 

Exercise  1.  Practice  folding  paper  properly. 

Exercise  2.  On  unruled  paper  draw  a  number  of 
oblongs  the  size  of  a  business  envelope.  On  thes6  oblongs 
write  the  addresses  given  with  the  letters  in  these  les- 
sons, or  other  addresses  of  which  you  know. 

Exercise  3.  When  you  feel  satisfied  with  the  appear- 
ance of  your  oblongs,  write  the  address  used  in  one  of 

133 


134 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


your  letters  on  an  envelope^  fold  the  letter  and  put  it 
into  the  envelope. 
Two  models  are  given  below: — 


00 

09 

■^  ^  ;^ 

^      ^       *5 

r  i*    o 

a^*" 

•8| 

g-t 

1 

o    o 

-§  fiq 

c§  § 

■^ 

{33 

•S» 

s    J 

J 

114 

Ol 

3  days 
arles  M 
Oak  Bh 

h  -<* 

^^ 

^ 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  letters: — 

1. 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  May  15, 1920. 
Smith  Manufacturing  Company, 
Nashua,  N.  H. 
Gentlemen: — 

We  shipped  to  your  address  today  by  Merchants'  Express,  4 
crates,  Nos.  4260,  4716,  506,   and  4120,  containing  together  14 


BUSI  NESS  LETTERS  135 

dresser  spools;  also  4  cases,  Nos.  4719,  4720,  4376  and  4088,  con- 
taining 912  empty  5-inch  spools,  for  all  of  which  please  credit  us. 

Yours  truly, 
Wright  Woolen  Mills  Company. 


955  Penn  Street,  Germantown,  Pa., 
January  15,  1920. 
Messrs.  Allen  &  Alger, 

25  Market  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Dear  Sirs  : — 
Please  send  to  us  at  our  address,  the  following  goods: — 

2  gross  union  knobs 

3  dozen  bronze  hinges 
20  kegs  8a  wire  nails 
6  gross  5x5  butts 

Kindly  ship  the  above  goods  as  soon  as  possible  by  P.  R.  R.  freight 
and  forward  the  bill  to  us. 

Yours  truly, 

Gbafen  &  Mi3LLEB. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  are  the  three  items  of  business  transacted  in 
each  of  the  letters  given  above?  2.  Why  should  the 
freight  or  express  companies  be  mentioned?  3.  What 
was  the  need  of  being  so  explicit  with  regard  to  numbers 
in  the  first  letter?  4.  Why  are  the  various  items  of 
merchandise  arranged  in  tabular  form  in  the  second 
letter?  5.  Notice  how  capitals  are  used  in  the  body  of 
the  second  letter. 

Subjects  for  business  letters. 

1.  Acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  first  letter  given 
above. 


136  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

2.  Write  a  letter  showing  that  you  have  shipped  the 
goods  ordered  in  the  second  letter  given  above. 

3.  Write  an  order  for  the  books  advertised  in  the 
following  lists: — 

Coleridge,  The  Ancient  Mariner.  By  John  Phelps  Fruit, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  English,  William  Jewell  College,  Mis- 
souri.   Pages,  95.    Levantine $0.25 

Longfellow,  Evangeline.   By  Agnes  M.  Lathe,  A.M.,  late 

Woman's  College,  Baltimore.     Pages,  180.    Levantine..       .25 
Lowell,  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  and  other  Poems.     By 
Ellen  A.  Vinton,  A.  M.,  Instructor  in  Literature,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.    Pages,  95.    Levantine 25 

Published  by  Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.^ 
378  Wabash  Ave., 

Chicago. 


LESSON  XXV 

I.    How  to  Express  Ideas  in  Business  Letters.    Apply- 
ing for  Positions. 

1.  No  kind  of  a  letter,  perhaps,  puts  us  to  a  greater 
test  than  one  making  application  for  a  desired  position, 
especially  when  the  letter  is  to  be  one  of  our  chief  recom- 
mendations. To  write  such  a  letter  successfully  requires 
painstaking,  tact,  directness  of  expression,  and  clearness  of 
explanation.  The  ideas  should  be  expressed  concisely 
yet  adequQ,tely.  In  such  a  letter  we  are  not  asking  for 
merchandise,  which  may  be  had  by  paying  the  price, 
but  for  a  favor  which  is  to  be  conferred  on  us  by  merit. 

2.  In  writing  such  a  letter,  we  shall,  perhaps,  need  at 
least  three  paragraphs.  In  the  first  we  may  say  that  we 
are  applying  for  such  and  such  a  position  and  mention 
the  agency  through  which  it  was  offered.  In  the  second 
paragraph  we  may  describe  ourselves;  as,  our  age,  the 
school  which  we  are  attending,  the  school  or  schools  from 
which  we  have  been  graduated,  where  and  with  whom  we 
live,  our  capabilities  for  filling  the  position,  any  special 
training  which  we  have  received.  In  the  third  para- 
graph, we  may  name  the  letters  of  recommendation  which 
we  are  enclosing  or  which  we  may  offer,  or  the  persons 
to  whom  we  may  refer  as  being  willing  to  give  recom- 
mendations. 

Exercise  for  practice. 

Write  in  class  an  answer  to  one  of  the  following  adver- 
tisements:— 

187 


138  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

1. 

Wanted.  A  boy  of  about  fifteen  to  go  camping  with  a 
family.  Must  be  willing  to  do  some  fetching  and  carrying, 
and  to  play  with  the  two  small  boys  of  the  family.  Best  of 
references  required.  Address  T.  H.  Montague,  Swamps- 
cott  Bluffs,  Mass. 

2. 

Wanted.  A  high-school  girl  to  take  care  of  a  child  of 
two,  afternoons.  State  reasons  for  desiring  the  position. 
Best  of  references  required.  Address  Mrs.  Wellington 
Smythe,  Longwood  Avenue,  Brookline,  Mass. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Write  an  answer  to  one  of  the  following  advertise- 
ments:— 

1. 
Wanted.    An  office  boy.    Must  have  had  experience 
in  keeping  books.    Address  Williams  &  Brown,  Mechanics 
Building,  Swampscott,  Mass. 

2. 

Wanted.  Young  man  to  look  after  detail  in  credit 
department  of  large  mercantile  house.  One  who  has  had 
experience  in  credit  department  methods  preferred.  Sal- 
ary $10  per  week.  Address  in  own  handwriting,  giving 
references,  L.,  PostofiBce  Box  1,977,  New  York. 

3. 

Wanted.  An  intelligent  boy  or  young  man  for  clerical 
work  and  general  usefulness  in  office  of  large  boys'  school 
in  country.  Best  references  required.  $20  monthly  and 
home.    4,545,  Outlook. 

4. 

Wanted.  Nursery  governess  for  boy  of  four.  Must  have 
highest  references,  and  be  willing  to  travel  when  required. 
New  York  position  after  October  1,  country  until  then. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  139 

French,  Swiss  or  German  preferred  if  she  speaks  her  own 
language  well.  Write,  giving  full  particulars,  including  age, 
references,  and  wages  expected,  to  Box  245, York  Comer,Me. 

6. 
Wanted.    A  literary  man.  Harvard,  A.  B.,  who  is  to 
reside  in  Rome,  wishes  to  tutor  a  boy,  backward  or  indif- 
ferent to  school.  Privileges  in  handicraft.  A.  M.,  York,  Me. 


LESSON  XXVI 

I.    How  to  Express  Ideas  in  the  Formal  Note. 

1.  Convention  has  established  certain  rules  to  be 
followed  with  regard  to  the  formal  note, — such  as  polite 
notes  of  invitation,  acceptance,  and  regret. 

2.  These  formal  notes  are  written  in  the  third  person. 
They  have  no  heading,  no  address,  no  formal  closing, 
and  should  be  written  on  the  first  page  only  of  note-paper. 

3.  If  the  address  of  the  writer  and  the  date  are  used, 
they  are  written  below  the  body  of  the  note  and  at  the 
left  hand  side.  The  day  of  the  month  is  often  written 
out  in  full,  and  the  year  may  be  omitted. 

4.  A  reply  to  an  invitation  should  carefully  follow  the 
formula  used  in  the  invitation.  In  order  to  prevent 
mistake,  it  should  repeat  the  date  and  the  hour  men- 
tioned in  the  invitation. 

5.  Formal  notes  should  be  written  on  unruled  note- 
paper,  which  may  be  bought  for  the  purpose.  White  or 
cream  paper  is  always  in  good  taste, 

n«    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  formal  notes ;  observe  the  formula 
used  in  each,  and  the  spacing. 

140 


THE  FORMAL  NOTE  141 


1. 


Mrs.  Henry  T.  Wyman  requests  the 
'pleasure  of  Miss  Yor¥s  company  at 
dinner  on  Thursday,  January  twenty- 
first,  at  seven  o^clock. 

SO  Linden  Street, 
January  fourteenth. 


142  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Miss  York  accepts  with  pleasure 
Mrs.  Wyman's  kind  invitation  to 
dinner  on  Thursday,  January  twenty- 
first. 

J^S  Woodlawn  Avenue, 
January  fifteenth. 


THE  FORMAL  NOTE  143 


Miss  York  regrets  that  a  previous 
engagement  prevents  her  from  accept- 
ing Mrs.  Wyman's  kind  invitation  to 
dinner  on  Thursday,  January  twenty- 
first, 

45  Woodlawn  Avenue, 
January  fifteenth. 


144  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

A} 


Will  Miss  Parker  be  kind  enough 

to  excuse  Harold  Howe  from  school  at 

ten   o'clock,   and   greatly   oblige   his 

mother^ 

Helen  E.  Howe. 

Oak  Knoll 

Wednesday  morning. 


*It  is  not  necessary  to  be  so  formal  as  this  in  a  note  to  the  teacher. 
The  note  may  read, — 

Mt  Deab  Miss  Parker  : — ^Will  you  kindly  excuse,  etc. 
Yours  very  sincerely, 

Helen  E.  Hows. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  145 

Exercises  for  practice.^ 

1.  Write  a  formal  invitation  to  Katharine  Ellis  for 
your  birthday  party,  Tuesday  next,  at  eight  o'clock. 

2.  Write  a  formal  acceptance  to  the  above  invitation. 

3.  Write  a  formal  regret  to  the  above  invitation. 

4.  Write  a  formal  invitation  to  Mrs.  William  Black 
for  the  opening  of  Miss  Clarke's  millinery  parlors,  on 
Wednesday  next  from  nine  to  six. 

5.  Write  a  formal  note  for  your  mother  asking  your 
teacher  to  excuse  you  for  unprepared  lessons  today. 

6.  Write  a  formal  note  announcing  a  change  in  place 
of  business. 

iThese  exercises,  one  or  more,  had  better  be  written  in  class. 
After  a  correct  note  has  been  written  it  may  be  copied  on  note  p!^>er. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  FORMAL 
CORRESPONDENCE. 

SUMMARY  OF  LESSONS  XXI-XXVI 

I.  The  Parts  of  a  Business  Letter  (pp.  119-121). 

1.  The  heading. 

2.  The  address. 

3.  The  salutation. 

4.  The  body  of  the  letter. 

5.  The  formal  closing. 

6.  The  signature. 

II.  The  Body  of  the  Letter  (pp.  127-130). 

1.  Two  things  should  be  kept  in  mind, — 

a.  The  point  of  view  of  the  person  to  whom  we 
are  writing. 

b.  The  settling  of  the  business  at  hand  to  our 
own  satisfaction, — 

a.  By  making  our  business  clear  and  explicit. 
h.  By  making  our  letters  neat,  legible,  and 
correct  in  form  and  composition. 

c.  By  being  prompt  to  reply  to  all  inquiries. 

d.  By  being  courteous. 

2.  Separate  paragraphs  should  present  the  points 
clearly,  definitely,  and  in  logical  order. 

3.  All  such  details  as  express,  freight,  inclosures, 
and  remittance  should  be  carefully  mentioned. 

III.  Folding  the  Letter  and  Addressing  the  Envelope, 
(pp.  133,  134). 

146 


SUMMARY  147 

IV.  Letters  Applying  for  Positions  (p.  137). 

1.  Require  painstaking,  tact,  directness  of  expres- 
sion, clearness  of  explanation.  The  ideas  should 
be  expressed  concisely,  yet  adequately. 

2.  At  least  three  paragraphs  needed: — 

(a)  An  application  and  mention  of  the  agency 
through  which  the  position  was  offered. 

(b)  Our  capabilities  and  qualifications. 

(c)  References  and  recommendations. 

V.  The  Formal  Note  (p.  140). 

1.  Should  be  written  in  the  third  person.  A  formal 
note  has  no  heading,  no  address,  no  formal  closing. 
It  is  written  on  the  first  page  only  of  note  paper. 

2.  If  the  address  of  the  writer  and  the  date  are  used, 
they  should  be  written  below  the  body  of  the 
note,  and  at  the  left-hand  side. 

3.  A  reply  to  a  formal  note  or  invitation  should 
carefully  follow  the  formula  used  in  the  invi- 
tation. 


IS 


PART  III 

EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  LONG 
THEME 


PART  III 

EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  LONG  THEME 
LESSON  XXVII 

I.    The  Paragraph  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  We  have  been  expressing  our  ideas  in  paragraph 
themes  all  the  year,  but  nothing  has  been  said  definitely 
in  the  Lessons  about  the  form  and  content  of  the  para- 
graph. The  following  Lessons  will  consider  the  indi- 
vidual paragraph  as  a  unit  and  also  as  a  part  of  a  whole 
composition. 

2.  The  paragraph  defined.  A  paragraph  is  a  collec- 
tion of  sentences  all  bearing  upon  one  easily  discovered 
subject;  as,  for  example,  the  following  paragraph,  where 
the  subject  is  easily  discovered  to  be,  "The  human  species 
is  composed  of  two  distinct  races." 

The  human  species,  according  to  the  best  theory  I  can  form  of 
it,  is  composed  of  two  distinct  races,  the  men  who  borrow  and  the 
men  who  lend.  To  these  original  diversities  may  be  reduced  all  those 
impertinent  classifications  of  Gothic  and  Celtic  tribes,  white  men, 
black  men,  red  men.  All  the  dwellers  upon  earth,  "Parthians,  and 
Medes,  and  Elamites,"  flock  hither,  and  do  naturally  fall  in  with  one 
or  other  of  these  primary  distinctions.  The  infinite  superiority  of  the 
former,  which  I  choose  to  designate  as  the  great  race,  is  discernible  in 
their  figure,  port,  and  a  certain  instinctive  sovereignty.  The  latter 
are  bom  degraded.  "He  shall  serve  his  brethren."  There  is  some- 
thing in  the  air  of  one  of  this  cast,  lean  and  suspicious;  contrasting 
with  the  open,  trusting,  generous  manners  of  the  other. — Lamb: 
Essays  of  Elia. 

151 


152  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

II.  The  Paragraph  as  a  Part  or  as  a  Whole. 

A  paragraph  may  represent  a  natural  division  of 
thought  in  a  whole  composition,  or  it  may  exist  as  a 
complete  composition  in  itself. 

Of  the  following  examples,  the  first  is  very  evidently 
one  of  the  natural  divisions  of  a  whole  composition;  the 
second  seems  to  be  a  complete  composition  in  itself. 

1. 

THE  SAGACITY  OF  A  WILLOW-WREN. 

Topic :    A  farther  instance  of  sagacity  in  a  yellow-wren. 

A  farther  instance  I  once  saw  of  notable  sagacity  in  a  willow-wren, 
which  had  built  in  a  bank  in  my  fields.  This  bird  a  friend  and  myself 
had  observed  as  she  sat  in  her  nest,  but  were  particularly  careful  not 
to  disturb  her,  though  we  saw  she  eyed  us  with  some  degree  of  jeal- 
ousy. Some  days  after,  as  we  passed  that  way,  we  were  desirous  of 
remarking  how  this  brood  went  on,  but  no  nest  could  be  found,  till  I 
happened  to  take  a  large  bimdle  of  long  green  moss,  as  it  were,  care- 
lessly thrown  over  the  nest  in  order  to  dodge  the  eye  of  any  imperti- 
nent intruder. — White:  Natural  History  of  Selborne. 

2. 

THE  ASS  IN  THE  LION'S  SKIN. 

An  Ass,  finding  the  skin  of  a  Lion,  put  it  on ;  and,  going  into  the 
woods  and  the  pastures,  threw  all  the  flocks  and  herds  into  a  terrible 
consternation.  At  last,  meeting  the  owner,  he  would  have  fright- 
ened him,  also;  but  the  good  man,  seeing  his  long  ears  stick  out, 
presently  knew  him,  and  with  a  good  cudgel  made  him  sensible  that, 
notwithstanding  his  being  dressed  in  a  Lion's  skin,  he  was  really  no 
more  than  an  Ass. — JEsop^s  Fables, 

III.    Indentation. 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  a  paragraph  is  that  it  is 
indented, — that  is,  the  first  line  is  set  in  from  the  margin, 
as  in  the  following: — 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  153 


EPPIE'S  WEDDING  DAY. 

There  was  one  time  of  the  year  which  waa  held  in  Haveloe  to  be 
especially  suitable  for  a  wedding.  It  was  when  the  great  lilacs  and 
laburnums  in  the  old-fashioned  gardens  showed  their  golden  and 
purple  wealth  above  the  lichen-tinted  walls,  and  when  there  were 
•alvea  still  young  enough  to  want  bucketfuls  of  fragrant  milk.  People 
were  not  so  busy  then  as  they  must  become  when  the  full  cheese- 
making  and  the  mowing  had  set  in ;  and  besides,  it  was  a  time  when 
a  light  bridal  dress  could  be  worn  with  comfort  and  seen  to  advan- 
tage. 

Happily  the  sunshine  fell  more  warmly  then  usual  on  the  lilac 
tufts  the  mom  ing  that  Eppie  was  married,  for  her  dress  was  a  very 
light  one.  She  had  often  thought,  though  with  a  feeling  of  renuncia- 
tion, that  the  perfection  of  a  wedding-dress  would  be  a  white  cotton, 
with  the  tiniest  pink  sprig  at  wide  intervals;  so  that  when  Mrs. 
Godfrey  Cass  begged  to  provide  one,  and  asked  Eppie  to  choose 
what  it  should  be,  previous  meditation  had  enabled  her  to  give  & 
decided  answer  at  once. 

Seen  at  a  little  distance  as  she  walked  across  the  churchyard  and 
down  the  village,  she  seemed  to  be  attired  in  pure  white,  and  her 
hair  looked  like  the  dash  of  gold  on  a  lily.  One  hand  was  on  her 
husb.and's  arm,  and  with  the  other  she  clasped  the  hand  of  her  father 
Silas 

"You  won't  be  giving  me  away,  father,"  she  had  said  before  they 
went  to  church;  "you'll  only  be  taking  Aaron  to  be  a  son  to  you." 

Dolly  Winthrop  walked  behind  with  her  husband;  and  there 
ended  the  little  bridal  procession. — George  Eliot:   Silas  Mamer. 

Exercise  1.  In  the  examples  accompanying  this  Les- 
son, show  how  each  paragraph  bears  out  the  definition 
of  a  paragraph. 

Exercise  2.  Show  which  paragraphs  in  the  examples 
given  are  natural  divisions  of  thought,  and  which  exist  by 
themselves  as  complete  compositions,  and  why. 

Exercise  8.  In  the  following  selections,  find  subjects 


164  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

for  the  separate  paragraphs,  and  for  combinations  of 
paragraphs;  tell  which  paragraphs  seem  to  be  complete 
compositions  and  which  seem  to  be  part  of  an  incomplete 
whole  and  why. 

1. 

I  propose  to  demonstrate  to  you  that,  notwithstanding  these 
apparent  diflBcuIties,  a  threefold  unity — ^namely,  a  unity  of  power  or 
faculty,  a  unity  of  form,  and  a  unity  of  substantial  composition — 
does  pervade  the  whole  living  world. — Huxley:  The  Physical  Basis 
of  Life. 

2. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago,  our  fathers  brought  forth  on  this 
continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to  the 
proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal. 

Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that 
nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 
We  are  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to 
dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who 
here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 

But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate — we  cannot  consecrate — 
we  cannot  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead, 
who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power  to 
add  or  detract.  The  world  will  httle  note,  nor  long  remember,  what 
we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us, 
the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which 
they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather 
for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us — 
that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that 
cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion — ^that 
we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain, — 
that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom, — 
and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people, 
shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. — Abraham  Lincoln:  Gettysburg 
Address. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  155 

8. 

In  the  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  where  the  timber  has  been 
destroyed  and  many  of  the  valleys  have  been  turned  into  mere  sluices 
and  drainways  for  the  black  waters  of  coal  mines,  the  laurel  and  the 
rhododendron  grow  in  great  profusion,  covering  valley,  hill,  and 
mountain  for  miles  at  a  stretch.  In  the  early  summer,  when  they  are 
in  bloom,  they  are  really  splendid  in  effect.  All  the  mountain  seems 
in  blossom,  and  along  the  ridges  the  color  is  banked  up  against  the 
blue  sky  in  pink  and  red  clouds. — Van  Dyke:  Nature  for  Its  Own  Sake. 


The  stranger  who  would  form  a  correct  opinion  of  the  English 
character  must  not  confine  his  observations  to  the  metropolis.  He 
must  go  forth  into  the  country;  he  must  sojourn  in  villages  and 
hamlets;  he  must  visit  castles,  villas,  farmhouses,  cottages;  he  must 
wander  through  parks  and  gardens;  along  hedges  and  green  lanes; 
he  must  loiter  about  country  churches;  attend  wakes  and  fairs,  and 
other  rural  festivals;  and  cope  with  the  people  in  all  their  conditions 
and  all  their  habits  and  humors. — Irving:  The  Sketch  Book, 

6. 

The  functions  of  the  Senate  fall  into  three  classes — legislative, 
executive,  and  judicial.  Its  legislative  function  is  to  pass,  along  with 
the  House  of  Representatives,  bills  which  become  acts  of  Congress 
on  the  assent  of  the  President,  or  even  without  his  consent,  if  passed 
a  second  time  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  House,  after  he  has 
returned  them  for  reconsideration.  Its  executive  fimctions  are: — 
(a)  To  approve  or  disapprove  the  President 's  nominations  of  Federal 
oflBcers,  including  judges,  ministers  of  state,  and  ambassadors,  (b)  To 
approve,  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds  of  those  present,  of  treaties 
made  by  the  President — i.  e.  if  less  than  two-thirds  approve,  the 
treaty  falls  to  the  ground.  Its  judicial  function  is  to  sit  as  a  court 
for  the  trial  of  impeachments  preferred  by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives.— Bryce:  American  Commonwealth. 

6. 

One  autumn  day,  when  the  grapes  were  ripe,  a  fox  stole  into  a 
vineyard.   Spread  out  on  the  treUises  above  him  were  great  massiSB 


166  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

of  luscious  grapes,  and  he  longed  for  a  bunch.  He  made  many  a 
jump,  but  the  grapes  were  high,  and  he  could  not  reach  them.  Tired 
out  at  last,  he  said  to  himself,  "Ugh I  I  don't  care.  The  grapes  are 
sour  anyway!"  and  made  off. — ^sop^s  Fables. 

II.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  compositions: — 

1. 

Those  who  see  the  Englishman  only  in  town  are  apt  to  form  an 
unfavorable  opinion  of  his  social  character.  He  is  either  absorbed 
in  business,  or  distracted  by  the  thousand  engagements  that  dissipate 
time,  thought,  and  feeling,  in  this  huge  metropolis.  He  has,  there- 
fore, too  commonly  a  look  of  hurry  and  abstraction.  Wherever  he 
happens  to  be,  he  is  on  the  point  of  going  somewhere  else;  at  the 
moment  he  is  talking  on  one  subject,  his  mind  is  wandering  to 
another;  and  while  paying  a  friendly  visit,  he  is  calculating  how  he 
shall  economize  time  so  as  to  pay  the  other  visits  allotted  to  the 
morning.  An  immense  metropolis  like  London,  is  calculated  to  make 
men  selfish  and  uninteresting.  In  their  casual  and  transient  meet- 
ings, they  can  but  deal  briefly  in  commonplaces.  They  present  but 
the  cold  superficies  of  character — its  rich  and  genial  qualities  have 
no  time  to  be  warmed  into  a  flow. — Irving:  Rural  Life  in  England 

2. 

There  it  rose,  a  little  withdrawn  from  the  line  of  the  street,  but  in 
pride,  not  modesty.  Its  whole  visible  exterior  was  ornamented  with 
quaint  figures,  conceived  in  the  grotesqueness  of  a  Gothic  fancy, 
and  drawn  or  stamped  in  the  glittering  plaster,  composed  of  lime, 
pebbles,  and  bits  of  glass,  with  which  the  wood-work  of  the  walls  was 
overspread.  On  every  side,  the  seven  gables  pointed  sharply  toward 
the  sky,  and  presented  the  aspect  of  a  whole  sisterhood  of  edifices, 
breathing  through  the  spiracles  of  one  great  chimney.  The  many 
lattices,  with  their  small,  diamond-shaped  panes,  admitted  the  sun- 
light into  hall  and  chamber,  while,  nevertheless,  the  second  story, 
projecting  far  over  the  base,  and  itself  retiring  beneath  the  third, 
tbrtw  »  ihadowy  and  thoughtful  gloom  into  the  lower  rooms. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  157 

Carved  globes  of  wood  were  afl5xed  under  the  Jutting  stories.  Little 
spiral  rods  of  iron  beautified  each  of  the  seven  peaks.  On  the 
triangular  portion  of  the  gable,  that  fronted  next  the  street,  was  a 
dial.  The  principal  entrance,  which  had  almost  the  breadth  of  a 
church-door,  was  in  the  angle  between  the  two  front  gables,  and  was 
covered  by  an  open  porch,  with  benches  beneath  its  shelter. — 
Hawthorne:  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gahle8. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Find  a  subject  for  each  of  the  above  paragraphs. 
2.  Show  how  the  paragraphs  bear  out  the  definition  of  a 
paragraph.  3.  Find  examples  of  specific  words  in  the 
paragraphs.  4.  What  force  have  the  words  "absorbed** 
and  "distracted'*  as  they  are  used  in  the  second  sentence 
of  the  first  paragraph?  5.  What  two  words  in  the  last 
sentence  of  the  first  paragraph  show  that  the  English- 
man has  two  sides  to  his  nature?  6.  What  details  in  the 
second  paragraph  present  a  picture  of  the  house?  Find 
expressions  which  serve  as  illustrations  of  the  idea. 
7.  In  the  pictures  given  opposite  page  81  which  is  the 
more  faithful  to  details?  Which  is  the  more  faithful  to 
the  spirit  of  the  scene?  What  value  does  the  presence 
or  absence  of  minor  details  give  to  the  picture?  Would 
Corot  have  put  the  reflection  of  the  clouds  in  the  water 
if  he  had  been  painting  the  scene  opposite  this  page? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Subjects  for  written  composition.* 

Choose  one  of  the  following  sentences  and  use  it  as  the 
first  sentence  of  a  one-paragraph  theme: — 

1.  Those  who  see  the  boy  (or  girl)  only  in  school  are 
apt  to  form  an  unfavorable  opinion  of  him  (or  her), 

«See  "Exposition  of  Method"  page  XV. 


158  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

(Describe  him  as  he  appears  in  school.)  2.  The  exterior 
of  the  house  in  which  I  was  born  presents  an  odd  ap- 
pearance. (Describe  the  exterior.)  3.  When  you  see 
my  little  dog  trotting  along  the  street,  you  perhaps  do 
not  admire  him.  (Describe  him  as  he  trots  along.) 
4.  Fronting  a  country  road  is  a  queer-looking  deserted 
house.  (Describe  its  exterior  appearance.)  5.  In  the 
outskirts  of  the  city  is  a  tumble-down  house,  which 
once  must  have  been  very  grand.  (Describe  its  exterior 
appearance  as  it  looks  now,  giving  also  such  details  as 
will  show  why  it  was  once  ''grand.")  6.  My  grand- 
father's house  is  one  of  the  finest  and  oldest  farmhouses 
in  the  country  around.  (Describe  its  exterior  appear- 
ance.) 7.  An  artist's  reproduction  of  a  scene  is  very 
different  from  that  given  by  a  camera.  (Illustrate 
from  the  two  pictures  given  opposite  page  81;  or  from 
the  picture  of  the  statue  of  Lincoln  by  St.  Gaudens 
given  opposite  page  10  as  compared  with  a  familiar 
photograph  of  Lincoln.) 


LESSON  XXVIII 

I.  The  Paragraph  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  The  test  of  unity.  A  good  way  to  test  a  paragraph 
for  unity  is  to  see  if  the  thought  contained  in  it  can  be 
put  into  one  sentence.  For  example,  the  first  sentence 
in  the  following  paragraph  seems  to  sum  up  all  that  ia 
said  in  the  paragraph: —  ^ 

A  peculiar  melancholy  reigns  over  the  aisle  where  Mary  lies  buried. 
The  light  struggles  dimly  through  windows  darkened  by  dust.  The 
greater  part  of  the  place  is  in  deep  shadow,  and  the  walls  are 
stained  and  tinted  by  time  and  weather.  A  marble  figure  of  Maiy  is 
stretched  upon  the  tomb,  round  which  is  an  iron  railing,  much 
corroded,  bearing  her  national  emblem — the  thistle.  I  was  weary 
with  wandering,  and  sat  down  to  rest  myself  by  the  monument, 
revolving  in  my  mind  the  chequered  and  disastrous  story  of  poor 
Mary. — Irving. 

2.  The  ideal  paragraph  has  (1)  an  introductory  or 
topic  sentence  giving  the  subject  about  which  the  para- 
graph is  to  be;  (2)  a  group  of  sentences  developing, 
explaining,  exemplifying,  or  illustrating  the  thought 
contained  in  the  introductory  or  topic  sentence;  (3) 
a  concluding  sentence  which  serves  to  bind  together  or 
to  sum  up  the  whole  of  the  thought  contained  in  the 
paragraph. 


160  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

The  following  paragraph  will  illustrate  this  definition 
of  an  ideal  paragraph; — 

ductor?**'  *' Books f  however f  were  the  least  part  of  the  education  of 
•entence.  an  Athenian  citizen.  Let  us,  for  a  moment,  transport 
ourselves,  in  thought,  to  that  glorious  city.  Let  us  im- 
agine that  we  are  entering  its  gates  in  the  time  of  its 
power  and  glory.  A  crowd  is  assembled  round  a 
portico.  All  are  gazing  with  delight  at  the  entablature, 
for  Phidias  is  putting  up  the  frieze.  We  turn  into 
another  street;  a  rhapsodist  is  reciting  there;  men, 
women,  children,  are  thronging  round  him;  the  tears  are 
running  down  their  cheeks;  their  eyes  are  fixed;  their 

2.  Imaftl-  very  breath  is  still;  for  he  is  telling  how  Priam  fell 
fure  in**^"  **  ^^^  '®®*  °^  Achilles,  and  kissed  those  hands — the 
words  to  terrible — the  murderous — ^which  had  slain  so  many  of 
the  his  sons.  We  enter  a  public  place;  there  is  a  ring  of 
contained  yo^^ths,  all  leaning  forward  with  sparkling  eyes,  and 
In  the  first  gestures  of   expectation.    Socrates  is   pitted  against 

the  famous  Atheist  from  Ionia,  and  has  just  brought 
him  to  a  contradiction  in  terms.  But  we  are  inter- 
rupted .  The  herald  is  crying — *  Room  for  the  Pry tanes  I ' 
The  assembly  is  to  meet.  The  people  are  swarming  on 
every  side.  Proclamation  is  made — *Who  wishes  to 
speak?'  There  is  a  shout  and  a  clapping  of  hands:  Peri- 
cles is  mounting  the  stand.  Then  for  a  play  of  Sopho- 
cles; and  away  to  sup  with  Aspasia.    /  know  of  no 

3.  Con-  modem  university  which  has  so  excellent  a  system  of 
■sntence.     education." — Macaulay:  Essay  on  Athenian  Orators. 

3.  In  conversational  passages  the  speeches  of  differ- 
ent persons  are  paragraphed.  Explanatory  matter  com- 
ing between  speeches  is  combined  with  the  speech  to 
which  it  is  most  nearly  related;  as  in  the  following: — 

THE  GRASS-HOPPER  AND  THE  ANT. 

Miss  Grasshopper,  after  she  had  sung  all  through  summer,  found 
b«nelf,  when  the  biting  winds  began  to  blow,  in  a  sorry  plight.  The 


EXPRESSION  OP  IDEAS  161 

eye  of  the  little  trifler  met  not  anywhere  a  bit  of  grub  or  a  fly  to  eat. 
So  weeping  sorely  for  hunger,  she  knocked  at  the  door  of  her  neighbor, 
the  Ant,  and  begged  that  she  would  lend  her  just  for  once  a  little 
grain  till  warm  weather  should  come.  "On  my  life, "  she  cried,  "I 
will  pay  you  before  the  next  harvest  with  interest  and  principal." 

Now  every  one  knows  that  the  Ant  is  no  lender.  "Tell  me, "  said 
she  to  the  beggar-maid,  "what  have  you  been  doing  all  sunmierl" 

"I'm  afraid,"  the  little  beggar  replied,  "I  was  singing  day  and 
night  to  every  nook  and  comer. " 

"Singing!"  cried  the  Ant.  "Do  tell!  How  charming!  Well  then 
vagrant,  off,  and  be  about  your  singing!" — La  Fontaine* 8  Fablea, 

Exercise  1.  Find  a  sentence  in  each  of  the  following 
paragraphs,  which  shall  contain  the  gist  of  the  thought 
in  the  paragraph;  find  also  explanations,  illustrations, 
or  examples  which  develop  the  thought. 

1. 

If  you  look  at  the  map  of  Europe  you  will  see  two  great  rivers, — 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, — flowing  in  opposite  directions  across 
the  continent,  one  emptying  into  the  North  Sea  and  the  other  into 
the  Black  Sea.  Their  mouths  are  thousands  of  miles  apart ;  yet  when 
you  follow  up  the  course  of  each,  you  find  that  they  come  nearer  and 
nearer,  until,  at  their  sources,  the  distance  between  them  is  no 
greater  than  a  good  walker  might  cover  in  a  day.  Thus  these  two 
rivers  almost  form  a  single  line  across  the  whole  of  Europe.  Each 
in  its  lower  course  is  broad  and  deep,  and  makes  a  good  boundary  for 
the  countries  on  its  banks.  The  Roman  armies  in  the  old  days  often 
crossed  these  rivers  and  indeed  gained  victories  beyond  them;  but 
they  found  it  so  hard  to  keep  possession  of  what  they  conquered 
there,  that  in  the  end  they  decided  not  to  try.  So  for  many  years  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube  rivers  formed  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
theRomanEmpire.-<Sami*eZ  B.  Harding:  The  Story  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

2. 
The  dominant  spirit,  however,  that  haunts  this  enchanted  regioni 
and  seems  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  powers  of  the  air,  is  the 
apparition  of  a  figure  on  horseback  without  a  head.    It  is  said  by 


162  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

some  to  be  the  ghost  of  a  Hessian  trooper,  whose  head  had  been 
carried  away  by  a  cannon  ball,  in  some  nameless  battle  during  the 
revolutionary  war;  and  who  is  ever  and  anon  seen  by  the  country 
folk,  hurrying  along  in  the  gloom  of  night,  as  if  on  the  wings  of  the 
wind.  His  haunts  are  not  confined  to  the  valley,  but  extend  at  times 
to  the  adjacent  roads,  and  especially  to  the  vicinity  of  a  church  at  no 
great  distance.  Indeed,  certain  of  the  most  authentic  historians  of 
those  parts,  who  have  been  careful  in  collecting  and  collating  the 
floating  facts  concerning  this  spectre,  allege  that  the  body  of  the 
trooper  having  been  buried  in  the  churchyard,  the  ghost  rides  forth 
to  the  scene  of  battle  in  nightly  quest  of  his  head;  and  that  the 
rushing  speed  with  which  he  sometimes  passes  along  the  Hollow 
like  a  midnight  blast,  is  owing  to  his  being.belated,  and  in  a  hurry  to 
get  back  to  the  churchyard  before  daybreak. — Irving:  The  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow. 

3. 

The  river  was  swollen  with  the  long  rains.  From  Vaden- 
court  all  the  way  to  Origny  it  ran  with  ever  quickening  speed, 
taking  fresh  heart  at  each  mile  and  racing  as  though  it  al- 
ready smelled  the  sea.  The  water  was  yellow  and  turbulent,  swung 
with  an  angry  eddy  among  half-submerged  willows,  and  made 
an  angry  clatter  along  stony  shores.  The  course  kept  turning  and 
turning  in  a  narrow  and  well-timbered  valley.  Now  the  river 
would  approach  the  side,  and  run  gliding  along  the  chalky  base  of  the 
hill,  and  show  us  a  few  open  colza  fields  among  the  trees.  Now  it 
would  skirt  the  garden  walls  of  houses,  where  we  might  catch  a 
glimpse  through  a  door-way,  and  see  a  priest  pacing  in  the  checkered 
sunlight  Again,  the  foliage  closed  so  thickly  in  front  that  there 
seemed  to  be  no  issue;  only  a  thicket  of  willows  overtopped  by  elms 
and  poplars,  under  which  the  river  ran  flush  and  fleet,  and  where  a 
kingfisher  flew  past  like  a  piece  of  blue  sky.  On  these  different 
manifestations  the  sun  poured  its  clear  and  catholic  looks.  The 
shadows  lay  as  solid  on  the  swift  surface  of  the  stream  as  on  the  stable 
meadows.  The  light  sparkled  golden  in  the  dancing  poplar  leaves, 
and  brought  the  hills  into  communion  with  our  eyes.  All  the  while 
the  river  never  stopped  running  or  took  breath;  and  the  reeds  along 
the  whole  valley  stood  shivering  from  top  to  toe. — Stevenson:  An 
Inland  Voyage. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  163 

4. 

**The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of 
William  Rufus,  the  hall  which  had  resounded  with  acclamations  at 
the  inauguration  of  thirty  kings;  the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the 
just  sentence  of  Bacon  and  the  just  absolution  of  Somers;  the  hall 
where  the  eloquence  of  Strafford  had  for  a  moment  awed  and  melted 
a  victorious  party  inflamed  with  just  resentment;  the  hall  where 
Charles  had  confronted  the  High  Court  of  Justice  with  the  placid 
courage  which  has  half  redeemed  his  fame." — Macaulay:  Trial  of 
Warren  Hastings. 

5. 

When  I  was  a  child  of  seven  years  old  my  friends  on  a  holiday 
filled  my  pocket  with  coppers.  I  went  directly  to  a  shop  where  they 
sold  toys  for  children,  and  being  charmed  with  the  soimd  of  a  whistle 
that  I  met  by  the  way  in  the  hands  of  another  boy,  I  voluntarily 
offered  and  gave  all  my  money  for  one.  I  then  came  home  and  went 
whistling  all  over  the  house,  much  pleased  with  my  whistle,  but  dis- 
turbing all  the  family.  My  brothers  and  sisters  and  cousins,  under- 
standing the  bargain  I  had  made,  told  me  I  had  given  four  times  as 
much  for  it  as  it  was  worth,  put  me  in  mind  what  good  things  I  might 
have  bought  with  the  rest  of  the  money,  and  laughed  at  me  so  much 
for  my  folly  that  I  cried  with  vexation;  and  the  reflection  gave  me 
more  chagrin  than  the  whistle  gave  me  pleasure. — Franklin:  Auto- 
biography, 

6. 

Lay  bare  your  arm  and  stretch  it  straight.  Make  two  ink  dots 
half  an  inch  or  an  inch  apart,  exactly  opposite  the  elbow.  Bend 
your  arm,  the  dots  approach  each  other,  and  are  finally  brought 
together.  Let  the  two  dots  represent  the  two  sides  of  a  crevasse  at 
the  bottom  of  an  ice-fall;  the  bending  of  the  arm  resembles  the  bend- 
ing of  the  ice,  and  the  closing  up  of  the  dots  resembles  the  closing  of 
the  fissures. — Tyndall:  The  Forms  of  Water, 

7. 
Go  out  into  the  street,  and  ask  the  first  man  or  woman  you  meet, 
what  their  "taste"  is,  and  if  they  answer  candidly,  you  know  them, 
body  and  soul.   "You,  my  friend  in  the  rags,  with  the  unsteady  gait, 
13 


164  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

what  do  you  like?"  *'A  pipe  and  a  quartern  of  gin."  I  know  you. 
"You,  good  woman  with  the  quick  step  and  tidy  bonnet,  what  do 
you  like?"  "A  swept  hearth  and  a  clean  tea-table,  and  my  husband 
opposite  me,  and  a  baby  at  my  breast."  Good,  I  know  you  also. 
"You,  little  girl  with  the  golden  hair  and  the  soft  eyes,  what  do  you 
like?"  "My  canary,  and  a  run  among  the  wood  hyacinths."  "You, 
little  boy  with  the  dirty  hands  and  the  low  forehead,  what  do  you 
like?"  "A  shy  at  the  sparrows  and  a  game  at  pitch  farthing."  Good ; 
we  know  them  all  now.  What  more  need  we  ask. — Ruskin:  The 
Crown  of  Wild  Olive, 

8. 

Copper  is  much  employed  for  the  construction  of  boilers,  alem- 
bics, stills  and  worms,  and  for  kitchen  utensils.  Sheet-copper  is 
used  for  coating  the  bottoms  of  ships  and  sometimes  for  roofing 
houses.  This  metal  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  more  impor- 
tant alloys,  brass  (copper  and  zinc),  bronze  (copper  and  tin),  German 
silver  (copper,  zinc,  and  nickel). — Wurtz:  Elements  of  Chemistry. 

Exercise  2.  Give  the  reason  for  the  paragraph  divi- 
sions in  the  following: — 

One  morning  a  Welch  coach-maker  came  with  his  bill  to  my  lord, 
whose  name  was  imluckily  Lloyd.    My  lord  had  the  man  up: 

"You  are  called,  I  think,  Mr.  Lloyd?" 

"At  your  lordship's  service,  my  lord." 

"What,  Lloyd  with  an  L?" 

"It  was  an  L  indeed,  my  lord." 

"Because  in  your  part  of  the  world  I  have  heard  that  Lloyd  and 
Floyd  were  synomymous,  the  very  same  names." 

"Very  often  indeed,  my  lord." 

"But  you  always  spell  yours  with  an  L?" 

"Always." 

"That,  Mr.  Lloyd,  is  a  little  unlucky;  for  you  must  know  I  am 
now  paying  my  debts  alphabetically,  and  in  four  or  five  years  you 
might  have  come  in  with  an  F;  but  I  am  afraid  I  can  give  you  no 
hopes  for  your  L.   Ha,  ha,  hal" — Samuel  Foote:  The  Lame  Lover. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  165 

n.  Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  compositions.  Note  that  each 
is  the  continuation  of  a  corresponding  illustrative  com- 
position in  Lesson  XXVII,  p.  156. 

1. 

It  is  in  the  country  that  the  Englishman  gives  scope  to  his  natural 
feelings.  He  breaks  loose  gladly  from  the  cold  formalities  and  nega- 
tive civilities  of  town,  throws  off  his  habits  of  shy  reserve,  and 
becomes  joyous  and  free-hearted.  He  manages  to  collect  round  him 
all  the  conveniences  and  elegancies  of  polite  life,  and  to  banish  its 
restraints.  His  country-seat  abounds  with  every  requisite,  either 
for  studious  retirement,  tasteful  gratification,  or  rural  exercise. 
Books,  paintings,  music,  horses,  dogs,  and  sporting  implements  of 
all  kinds  are  at  hand.  He  puts  no  constraint,  either  upon  his  guests 
or  himself;  but,  in  the  true  spirit  of  hospitality,  provides  the  means 
of  enjoyment,  and  leaves  every  one  to  partake  according  to  his 
inclination. — Irving:  The  Sketch-Book. 

2. 

The  deep  projection  of  the  second  story  gave  the  house  such  a 
meditative  book,  that  you  could  not  pass  it  without  the  idea  that  it 
had  secrets  to  keep,  and  an  eventful  history  to  moralize  upon.  In 
front,  just  on  the  edge  of  the  unpaved  sidewalk,  grew  the  Pyncheon 
Elm,  which,  in  reference  to  such  trees  as  one  usually  meets  with, 
might  well  be  termed  gigantic.  It  had  been  planted  by  a  great- 
grandson  of  the  first  Pyncheon,  and,  though  now  fourscore  years  of 
age,  or  perhaps  nearer  a  hundred,  was  still  in  its  strong  and  broad 
maturity,  throwing  its  shadow  from  side  to  side  of  the  street,  over- 
topping the  seven  gables,  and  sweeping  the  whole  black  roof  with  its 
pendant  foliage.  It  gave  beauty  to  the  old  edifice,  and  seemed  to 
make  it  a  part  of  nature. — Nathaniel  Hawthorne:  The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Apply  the  definition  of  the  "ideaP'  paragraph  to 
the  above  composition.    2.  How  do  they  continue  the 


166  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

thought  given  in  the  illustrative  compositions  of  Lesson 
XXVII,  p.  156.  3.  Find  a  subject  for  each  of  the  two 
compositions  given  above.  4.  Find  a  subject  for  each 
group  of  two  paragraphs,  the  one  in  this  exercise  and  the 
corresponding  one  in  Lesson  XXVII. 

Subjects  for  written  composition.^ 

L  It  is  out  of  school  that  the  boy  (or  girl)  gives  scope 
to  his  (or  her)  natural  feelings.  (Tell  how.)  2.  The 
surroundings  of  the  house  (in  which  I  was  born)  were  as 
odd  as  the  house.  (Describe  them.)  3.  It  is  when  he  is 
with  me  that  my  little  dog  shows  his  real  worth.  (Ex- 
plain and  illustrate.)  4.  The  interior  of  the  deserted 
house  is  as  queer  as  its  exterior.  (Describe  it.)  5.  The 
surroundings  (or  environment)  of  the  (tumble-down) 
house  serve  only  to  emphasize  its  former  grandeur. 
(Explain: — Relics  of  extensive  grounds,  fountains,  sum- 
mer-houses, etc.  Tenement  houses  leaning  against  its 
once  massive  walls.  Neglected  walks,  weed-filled  gar- 
dens, rare  old  trees  attest  to  the  former  grandeur.) 
6.  Inside  the  house  (my  grandfather's)  are  many  odd 
and  interesting  corners  w^hich  we  children  love  to  explore. 
(The  garret,  the  cellar,  the  old  playhouse,  the  dairy, 
and  what  makes  them  odd  or  interesting.)  7.  In  study- 
ing a  picture  or  a  piece  of  statuary  executed  by  a  great 
artist,  we  should  seek  to  get  at  the  artist's  or  sculptor's 
meaning.  (Illustrate  from  the  picture  by  Corot  opposite 
page  81,  or  from  the  one  opposite  page  36,  or  from  the 
picture  of  the  statue  of  Lincoln  by  St.  Gaudens  opposite 
page  10.) 

'To  continue  the  subjecte  given  in  Lesson  XXVII,  p.  157. 


LESSON  XXIX 

I.    The  Paragraph  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  When  a  paragraph  represents  one  of  the  divisions 
of  a  subject,  it  should  show  unmistakably  that  it  belongs 
to  the  subject.  In  other  words  every  paragraph  should 
bear  directly  on  the  subject  of  the  whole  composition. 

2.  In  order  to  make  the  paragraphs  hang  together 
well  there  should  be  some  connecting  word  or  words 
between  paragraphs. 

Exercises.  Find  a  subject  for  each  of  the  following 
selections.  Show  how  each  paragraph  bears  directly 
on  the  subject  of  the  selection.  What  word  or  words 
are  used  in  each  paragraph  to  make  them  hang  together? 
Find  a  topic  for  each  paragraph. 

1. 

First,  Sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force  alone  is  but 
temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but  it  does  not  remove  the 
necessity  of  subduing  again;  and  a  nation  is  not  governed  which  is 
perpetually  to  be  conquered. 

My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is  not  always  the  effect 
of  force;  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory.  If  you  do  not  succeed, 
you  are  without  resource:  for  conciliation  failing,  force  remains;  but 
force  failing,  no  further  hope  of  reconciliation  is  left.  Power  and 
authority  are  sometimes  bought  by  kindness;  but  they  can  never 
be  begged  as  alms  by  an  impoverished  and  defeated  violence. 

A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you  impair  the  object  by  your 
very  endeavors  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you  fought  for  is  not  the 
thing  which  you  recover;  but  depreciated,  sunk,  wasted  and  con- 
sumed in  the  contest.    Nothing  less  will  content  me  than  whole 

167 


168  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

America,  I  do  not  choose  to  consume  its  strength  along  with  our  own ; 
because  in  all  parts  it  is  the  British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do 
not  choose  to  be  caught  by  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  end  of  this  exhaust- 
ing conflict;  and  still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may  escape ;  but  I  can 
make  no  insurance  against  such  an  event.  Let  me  add  that  I  do  not 
choose  wholly  to  break  the  American  spirit;  because  it  is  the  spirit 
that  has  made  the  country. 

Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in  favor  of  force  as  an  instru- 
ment in  the  rule  of  our  colonies.  Their  growth  and  their  utility  have 
been  owing  to  methods  altogether  different.  Our  ancient  indulgence 
has  been  said  to  be  pursued  to  a  fault.  It  may  be  so;  but  we  know, 
if  feeling  is  evidence,  that  our  fault  was  more  tolerable  than  our 
attempt  to  mend  it,  and  our  sin  far  more  salutary  than  our  penitence. 

These,  Sir,  are  my  reasons  for  not  entertaining  that  high  opinion 
of  untried  force,  by  which  many  gentlemen,  for  whose  sentiments 
in  other  particulars  I  have  great  respect,  seem  to  be  so  greatly  capti- 
vated.— Burke:  Conciliation  with  America, 

2. 

All  our  house  was  quite  snowed  up,  except  where  we  had  purged  a 
way  by  dint  of  constant  shovellings.  The  kitchen  was  as  dark,  and 
darker,  than  the  cider-cellar,  and  long  lines  of  furrowed  scallorp 
ran  even  up  to  the  chimney-stacks.  Several  windows  fell  right  inwa  d 
through  the  weight  of  the  snow  against  them ;  and  the  few  that  stood, 
bulged  in,  and  bent  like  an  old  bruised  lantern.  We  were  obliged  to 
cook  by  candle-light;  we  were  forced  to  read  by  candle-light;  as  for 
baking  we  could  not  do  it,  because  the  oven  was  too  chill;  and  a  load 
of  fagots  only  brought  a  little  wet  down  the  sides  of  it. 

For  when  the  sun  burst  forth  at  last  upon  the  world  of  white,  what 
he  brought  was  neither  warmth,  nor  cheer,  nor  hope  of  softening; 
only  a  clearer  shaft  of  cold,  from  the  violent  depths  of  sky.  Long- 
drawn  alleys  of  white  haze  seemed  to  lead  toward  him,  yet  such  as  he 
could  not  come  down,  with  any  warmth  remaining.  Broad  white 
curtains  of  the  frost-fog  looped  around  the  lower  sky,  on  the  verge 
of  hill  and  valley,  and  above  the  laden  trees.  Only  round  the  sun 
himself,  and  the  spot  of  heaven  he  claimed;  clustered  a  bright  purple- 
blue,  clear,  and  calm,  and  deep« 


THE  PARAGRAPH  169 

That  night  such  a  frost  ensued  as  we  had  never  dreamed  of,  neither 
read  in  ancient  books,  nor  histories  of  Frobisher.  The  kettle  by  the 
fire  froze,  and  the  crock  upon  the  hearth-cheeks;  many  men  were 
killed,  and  cattle  rigid  in  their  head-ropes.  Then  1  heard  that  fearful 
sound  which  never  I  had  heard  before,  neither  since  have  heard 
(except  during  that  same  winter),  the  sharp  yet  solenm  sound  of 
trees  burst  open  by  the  frost-blow.  Our  great  walnut  lost  three 
branches,  and  has  been  dying  ever  since ;  though  growing  meanwhile, 
as  the  soul  does.  And  the  ancient  oak  at  the  cross  was  rent  and  many 
scores  of  ash  trees.  But  why  should  I  tell  all  this?  The  people  who 
have  not  seen  it  (as  I  have)  will  only  make  faces,  and  disbelieve,  till 
such  another  frost  comes,  which  perhaps  may  never  be. — Blackmore: 
Loma  Doone. 

8. 

The  bird  is  little  more  than  a  drift  of  the  air  brought  into  form 
by  plumes;  the  air  is  in  all  its  quills,  it  breathes  through  its  whole 
frame  and  flesh,  and  glows  with  air  in  its  flying,  like  a  blown  flame: 
it  rests  upon  the  air,  subdues  it,  surpasses  it,  outraces  it, — is  the 
air,  conscious  of  itself,  conquering  itself,  ruling  itself. 

Also,  into  the  throat  of  the  bird  is  given  the  voice  of  the  air. 
All  that  in  the  wind  itself  is  weak,  wild,  useless  in  sweetness,  is 
knit  together  in  its  song.  As  we  may  imagine  the  wild  form  of  the 
cloud  closed  into  the  perfect  form  of  the  bird's  wings,  so  the  wild 
voice  of  the  cloud  into  its  ordered  and  commanded  voice;  xm wearied, 
rippling  through  the  clear  heaven  in  its  gladness,  interpreting  all 
intense  passion  through  the  soft  spring  nights,  bursting  into  acclaim 
and  rapture  of  choir  at  daybreak,  or  lisping  and  twittering  among 
the  boughs  and  hedges  through  heat  of  day,  like  little  winds  that 
only  make  the  cowslip  bells  shake,  and  ruffle  the  petals  of  the 
wild  rose. 

Also,  upon  the  plumes  of  the  bird  are  put  the  colors  of  the  air: 
on  these  the  gold  of  the  cloud,  that  cannot  be  gathered  by  any 
covetousness;  the  rubies  of  the  clouds,  the  vermilion  of  the  cloud- 
bar,  and  the  flame  of  the  cloud-crest,  and  the  snow  of  the  cloud, 
and  its  shadow,  aiid  the  melted  blue  of  the  deep  wells  of  the  sky — 
all  these,  seized  by  the  creating  spirit,  and  woven  into  films  and 
tl^e^ds  of  plume;  witb  w^ye  op  w»ve  following  and  f^din^  aloQg 


170  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

breast,  and  throat,  and  opened  wings,  infinite  as  the  dividing  of  the 
foam  and  the  sifting  of  the  sea-sand. — Ruskin. 


On  one  occasion,  when  a  boy,  I  recollect  secretly  borrowing  an  old- 
fashioned  flint  gun  from  the  bird-keeper  of  the  farm  to  which  I  had 
been  invited.  I  ensconced  myself  behind  the  door  of  the  pig-sty, 
determined  to  make  a  victim  of  one  of  the  many  rats  that  were 
accustomed  to  disport  themselves  among  the  straw  that  formed  the 
bed  of  the  farmer's  pet  bacon  pigs.  In  a  few  minutes  out  came  an 
old  patriarchal  looking  rat,  who,  havmg  taken  a  careful  survey, 
quietly  began  to  feed.  After  a  long  aim,  bang  went  the  gun — I  fell 
backwards,  knocked  down  by  the  recoil  of  the  rusty  old  piece  of 
artillery.  I  did  not  remain  prone  long,  for  I  was  soon  roused  by  the 
most  unearthly  squeaks,  and  a  dreadful  noise  as  of  an  infuriated 
animal  madly  rushing  round  and  roimd  the  sty.  Ye  gods  what  had 
I  done?  I  had  not  surely,  like  the  tailor  in  the  old  song  of  the 
** Carrion  Crow," 

"Shot  and  missed  my  mark 
And  shot  the  old  sow  right  through  the  heart." 

But  I  had  nearly  performed  a  similar  sportsman-like  feat.  There 
was  poor  piggyj  the  blood  flowing  in  streamlets  from  several  small 
punctures  in  that  part  of  his  body  destined,  at  no  distant  period,  to 
become  ham;  in  vain  attempting,  by  dismal  cries  and  by  energetic 
waggings  of  his  curly  tail,  to  appease  the  pain  of  the  charge  of  small 
shot  which  had  so  unceremoniously  awaked  him  from  his  porcine 
dreams  of  oatmeal  and  boiled  potatoes.  But  where  was  the  rat?  He 
had  disappeared  unhurt;  the  buttocks  of  the  imfortunate  pig,  the 
rightful  owner  of  the  premises  had  received  the  charge  of  shot  in- 
tended to  destroy  the  daring  intruder. 

To  appease  piggy's  wrath  I  gave  him  a  bucketful  of  food  from  the 
hog-tub;  and  while  he  was  thus  consoling  his  inward  self,  wiped  off 
ohe  blood  from  the  wounded  parts,  and  said  nothing  about  it  to 
anybody.  No  doubt,  before  this  time,  some  frugal  housewife  has 
been  puzzled  and  astonished  at  the  unwonted  appearance  of  a  charge 
of  email  shot  in  the  center  of  the  breakfast  ham  which  she  procured 


THE  PARAGRAPH  171 

from  Squire  Morland  of  Sheepstead. — Francis  Trevelyan  Buckland: 
Curiosities  of  Natural  History. 


THE  FISH  I  DIDN'T  CATCH. 

I  remember  my  first  fishing-excursion  as  if  it  were  but  yesterday. 
I  have  been  happy  many  times  in  my  life,  but  never  more  intensely 
so  than  when  I  received  that  first  fishing-pole  from  my  uncle's  hand, 
and  trudged  off  with  him  through  the  woods  and  meadows. 

It  was  a  still,  sweet  day  of  early  summer;  the  long  afternoon 
shadows  of  the  trees  lay  cool  across  our  path;  the  leaves  seemed 
greener,  the  flowers  brighter,  the  birds  merrier,  than  ever  before. 
My  uncle,  who  knew  by  long  experience  where  were  the  best  haunts 
of  pickerel,  considerately  placed  me  at  the  most  favorable  point. 
I  threw  out  my  line  as  I  had  so  often  seen  others  do,  and  waited 
anxiously  for  a  bite,  moving  the  bait  in  rapid  jerks  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  in  imitation  of  the  leap  of  a  frog.  Nothing  came  of  it. 
"Try  again,"  said  my  uncle. 

Suddenly  the  bait  sank  out  of  sight.  "Now  for  it,"  thought  I; 
"here  is  a  fish  at  last."  I  made  a  strong  pull,  and  brought  up  a  tangle 
of  weeds.  Again  and  again  I  cast  out  my  line  with  aching  arms,  and 
drew  it  back  empty.  I  looked  to  my  uncle  appealingly.  "Try  once 
more,"  he  said;  "we  fishermen  must  have  patience." 

Suddenly  something  tugged  at  my  line,  and  swept  off  with  it  into 
deep  water.  Jerking  it  up,  I  saw  a  fine  pickerel  wriggling  in  the  sun. 
"Uncle!"  I  cried,  looking  back  in  uncontrollable  excitement,  "I've 
got  a  fish." 

"Not  yet,"  said  my  uncle.  As  he  spoke  there  was  a  plash  in  the 
water.  I  caught  the  arrowy  gleam  of  a  scared  fish  shooting  into  the 
middle  of  the  stream;  my  hook  hung  empty  from  the  line.  I  had 
lost  the  prize. 

Overcome  by  my  great  and  bitter  disappointment,  I  sat  down  on 
the  nearest  hassock,  and  for  a  time  refused  to  be  comforted  even  by 
my  uncle's  assurance  that  there  was  more  fish  in  the  brook.  He 
refitted  my  bait,  and,  putting  the  pole  again  in  my  hands,  told  me 
to  try  my  luck  once  more. 

"But  remember,  boy,"  he  said,  with  his  shrewd  smile,  "never  brag 
of  catching  a  fish  until  he  is  on  dry  ground.    I've  seen  older  folks 


172  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

doing  that  in  more  ways  than  one,  and  so  making  fools  of  themselves. 
It's  no  use  to  boast  of  anything  mitil  it's  done,  nor  then,  either,  for 
it  speaks  for  itself." — Whittier:    The  Little  Pilgrim.   Philadelphia, 


.  ,  .  The  Kettle,  growing  mellow  and  musical,  began  to  have 
irrepressible  gurglings  in  its  throat,  and  to  indulge  in  short  vocal 
snorts,  which  it  checked  in  the  bud,  as  if  it  hadn't  quite  made  up 
its  mind  yet  to  be  good  company.  Now  it  was,  that  after  two  or 
three  such  vain  attempts  to  stifle  its  convivial  sentiments,  it  threw 
off  all  moroseness,  all  reserve,  and  burst  into  a  stream  of  song  so 
cosy  and  hilarious,  as  never  maudlin  nightingale  yet  formed  the 
least  idea  of. 

And  here,  if  you  like,  the  Cricket  did  chime  in  with  a  chirrup, 
chirrup,  chirrup,  of  such  magnitude,  by  way  of  chorus, — ^with  a 
voice  so  astoundingly  disproportionate  to  its  size  as  compared  with 
the  Kettle  (size!  you  couldn't  see  it!) — that  if  it  had  then  and  there 
burst  itself  like  an  overcharged  gun,  if  it  had  fallen  a  victim  on  the 
spot,  and  chirruped  its  little  body  into  fifty  pieces,  it  would  have 
seemed  a  natural  and  inevitable  consequence,  for  which  it  had 
expressly  labored. 

There  was  all  the  excitement  of  a  race  about  it.  Chirp,  chirp, 
chirp!  Cricket  a  mile  ahead.  Hum,  hum,  hum — m — ml  Kettle 
making  play  in  the  distance,  like  a  great  top.  Chirp,  chirp,  chirp! 
Cricket  round  the  comer.  Hum,  hum,  hum — m — m!  Kettle  sticking 
to  him  in  his  own  way;  no  idea  of  giving  in.  Chirp,  chirp,  chirp! 
Cricket  fresher  than  ever.  Hum,  hum,  hum — m — m!  Kettle  slow 
and  steady.  Chirp,  chirp,  chirp!  Cricket  going  in  to  finish  him. 
Hum,  hum,  hum, — m — m!  Kettle  not  to  be  finished.  Until,  at 
last,  they  got  so  jumbled  together  in  the  hurry-skurry,  helter-ekelter 
of  the  match,  that  whether  the  Kettle  chirped  and  the  Cricket 
hummed,  or  the  Cricket  chirped  and  the  Kettle  hummed,  or  they 
both  chirped  and  both  hummed,  it  would  have  taken  a  clearer  head 
than  yours  or  mine  to  decide  with  anything  Hke  certainty. 

^— Dickens;  The  Cricket  on  ike  Hearth, 


THE  LONG  THEME  173 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Read  the  following  composition: — 

THROUGH  THE  GOLDEN  VALLEY. 

Below  La  F^re  the  river  runs  through  a  piece  of  open  pastoral 
country;  green,  opulent,  loved  by  breeders;  called  the  Golden 
Valley.  In  wide  sweeps,  and  with  a  swift  and  equable  gallop,  the 
ceaseless  stream  of  water  visits  and  makes  green  the  fields.  Kine, 
and  horses,  and  little  humorous  donkeys  browse  together  in  the 
meadows,  and  come  down  in  troops  to  the  river-side  to  drink.  They 
make  a  strange  feature  in  the  landscape;  above  all  when  startled, 
and  you  see  them  galloping  to  and  fro,  with  their  incongruous  forms 
and  faces.  It  gives  a  feeling  as  of  great,  unfenced  pampas,  and  the 
herds  of  wandering  nations.  There  were  hills  in  the  distance  upon 
either  hand;  and  on  one  side,  the  river  sometimes  bordered  on  the 
wooded  spurs  of  Coucy  and  St.  Gobain. 

the  sun  shone  on  the 

wet  meadows;  the  air  was  scented  with  the  breath  of  rejoicing  trees 
and  grass;  and  the  river  kept  unweariedly  carrying  us  on  at  its  best 
pace.  There  was  a  manufacturing  district  about  Chauny;  and  after 
that  the  banks  grew  so  high  that  they  hid  the  adjacent  country,  and 
we  could  see  nothing  but  clay  sides,  and  one  willow  after  another. 
Only  here  and  there  we  passed  by  a  village  or  a  ferry,  and  some 
wondering  child  upon  the  bank  would  stare  after  us  until  we  turned 
the  comer.  I  dare  say  we  continued  to  paddle  in  that  child 's  dreams 
for  many  a  night  after. 

Sun  and  shower  alternated  like  day  and  night,  making  the  hours 
longer  by  their  variety.  When  the  showers  were  heavy  I  could  feel 
each  drop  striking  through  my  jersey  to  my  warm  skin;  and  the 
accumulation  of  small  shocks  put  me  nearly  beside  myself.  I  decided 
I  should  buy  a  mackintosh  at  Noyon.  It  is  nothing  to  get  wet;  but 
the  misery  of  these  individual  pricks  of  cold  all  over  my  body  at  the 
same  instant  of  time  made  me  flail  the  water  with  my  paddle  like  a 
madman. 

All  the  time  the  river  stole  away  like  a  thief  in  straight  places,  or 
swung  round  comers  with  an  eddy;  the  willows  nodded  and  were 
undermined  all  day  long;  the  clay  banks  tumbled  in ;  the  Oise,  which 
had  been  so  many  centuries  making  the  Golden  Valley,  seemed  tp 


174  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

have  changed  its  fancy  and  be  bent  upon  undoing  its  performance. 
What  a  number  of  things  a  river  does  by  simply  following  Gravity 
in  the  innocence  of  its  heart! — Stevenson:   An  Inland  Voyage, 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Show  how  each  paragraph  in  the  above  composi- 
tion bears  directly  on  the  subject  of  the  whole  piece. 
2.  What  illustrations  and  incidents  are  used  to  develop 
the  idea  of  the  "pastoral,  opulent  country*'  of  Golden 
Valley?  3.  Make  a  hst  of  specific  words  from  the  first 
two  paragraphs.  4.  What  is  there  in  the  composition 
to  betray  the  author's  enjoyment  of  his  trip?  5.  The 
things  that  he  saw  caused  him  to  think.  What  were 
some  of  his  thoughts?  6.  The  last  paragraph  does  more 
than  give  another  phase  of  the  subject.   What  does  it  do? 

Subjects  for  written  composition.^ 

Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects.  First  write  out 
on  successive  lines  of  your  paper,  the  three  or  more  points 
which  you  are  to  consider,  and  number  them  carefully  for 
the  teacher^ s  inspection.  When  the  outline  is  satisfactory, 
write  the  theme. 

1.  A  canoe  trip  on  a  winding  stream  through  a  changing 
country.  2.  A  trip  down  the  river  or  in  the  harbor.  3.  A 
wagon  ride  through  a  farming  district.  4.  Summer  days 
in  the  country,  or  at  the  seashore.  5.  My  experience  at 
mountain-climbing.  6.  An  automobile  trip  to  a  new 
place.  7.  On  board  my  yacht.  8.  My  experience  at 
deep-sea  fishing.  9.  My  trip  in  a  house-boat.  10.  Over 
night  in  a  fishing  dory. 

^The  themes  will  now  be  too  long  to  write  as  often  as  one  a  week. 
The  class  may  accordingly  be  divided  into  sections.  See  "Exposition 
of  Method",  page  XXII. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

I.    Making  Outlines  for  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  In  the  last  Lesson,  we  found  the  subjects  of  the 
paragraphs,  wrote  them  down  in  order,  and  numbered 
them.  When  topics  are  thus  written  out,  the  result 
is  called  an  Outline.  Before  writing  a  composition,  such 
an  outline  should  be  made. 

Exercise  1.  Make  an  outUne  of  the  following  compo- 
sition : — 

When  the  [Greeks]  saw  the  sun  rise,  they  thought  that  it  was  a 
great  being  called  a  god,  who  came  up  out  of  the  sea  in  the  east,  and 
then  journeyed  across  the  sky  toward  the  west.  When  they  saw  the 
grass  and  flowers  springing  up  out  of  the  dark  cold  earth,  they  fancied 
that  there  must  be  another  god  who  made  them  grow.  They  imagined 
that  the  lightning  was  the  weapon  of  a  mighty  god,  who  ruled  the 
earth  and  sky.  And  so  they  explained  everything  about  them,  by 
thinking  that  it  was  caused  by  some  being  much  greater  than  them- 
selves. Sometimes  they  even  imagined  that  they  could  see  their 
gods  in  the  clouds  or  in  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  they 
thought  that  they  heard  them  speaking  in  the  rustling  leaves  of  the 
forest. 

The  Greeks  believed  that  the  whole  world  was  divided  among  the 
great  gods,  who  were  brothers.  The  first  and  greatest  of  them  was 
the  god  of  the  heaven  and  the  earth.  The  second  was  the  god  of  the 
ocean,  the  rivers,  and  the  brooks.  The  third  was  the  god  of  the  under 
world,  or  the  dark  space  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Besides 
these,  there  were  many  other  gods,  most  of  whom  were  the  children  of 
these  three  or  related  to  them  in  some  way . 

The  gods  were  always  thought  of  as  larger  than  men  and  more 
beautiful  in  face  and  figure.  They  remained  always  the  same,  never 
growing  older  or  d3dng,  as  men  do.   They  were  not  always  good,  but 

175 


176  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

would  often  quarrel  among  themselves,  and  sometines  do  very  cruel 
things.  Indeed,  they  were  very  much  like  the  men  and  women  who 
imagined  them,  except  that  they  could  do  wonderful  things  which 
have  been  impossible  for  the  people  of  the  earth. 

Besides  the  greater  gods,  the  Greeks  believed  that  less  powerful 
spirits  were  all  about  them.  They  thought  that  the  trees  had 
guardian  spirits  who  cared  for  them.  Lovely  maidens,  called  nymphs, 
were  supposed  to  live  in  the  springs  and  brooks,  and  even  in  the  bright 
waves  of  the  sea.  There  were  spirits,  too,  who  lived  in  the  woods, 
and  wandered  among  the  trees  day  and  night;  and  still  others  who 
made  their  homes  upon  the  mountain  sides. 

The  Greeks  loved  their  gods,  but  feared  them  a  little  also.  They 
tried  to  gain  their  good-will  by  building  beautiful  marble  temples 
in  their  honor,  and  by  offering  wine  and  meat  and  precious  things  to 
them.  They  never  grew  tired  of  thinking  and  talking  about  their 
gods.  So  they  made  up  many  beautiful  stories  about  them,  which 
they  told  and  re-told,  and  which  their  children  and  grandchildren 
repeated  after  them  for  many  hundreds  of  years. — »S.  H,  and  S.  B. 
Harding:  Greek  GodSf  Heroes,  and  Men. 

2. 

THE  HALL  FARM. 

Evidently  that  gate  is  never  opened:  for  the  long  grass  and  the 
great  hemlocks  grow  close  against  it;  and  if  it  were  opened,  it  is  so 
rusty  that  the  force  necessary  to  turn  it  on  its  hinges  would  be  likely 
to  pull  down  the  square  stone  pillars,  to  the  detriment  of  the  two 
stone  lionesses  which  grin,  with  a  doubtful  camiverous  afifability, 
above  a  coat  of  arms  surmounting  each  of  the  pillars.  It  would  be 
easy  enough,  by  the  aid  of  the  nicks  in  the  stone  pillars,  to  climb  over 
the  brick  wall  with  its  smooth  stone  coping;  but  by  putting  our  eyes 
close  to  the  rusty  bars  of  the  gate  we  can  see  the  old  house  well 
enough,  and  all  but  the  very  comers  of  the  grassy  enclosure. 

It  is  a  very  fine  old  place,  of  red  brick,  softened  by  a  pale  powdery 
lichen  which  has  dispersed  itself  with  happy  irregularity,  so  as  to 
bring  the  red  brick  into  terms  of  friendly  companionship  with  the 
limestone  ornaments  surrounding  the  three  gables,  the  windows,  and 
the  door-place.    But  the  windows  are  patched  with  wooden  panes 


THE  OUTLINE  177 

and  the  door,  1  think,  is  like  the  gate — it  is  never  opened;  how  it 
would  groan  and  grate  against  the  stone  floor  if  it  were!  For  it  is  a 
solid,  heavy,  handsome  door  and  must  once  have  been  in  the  habit 
of  shutting  with  a  sonorous  bang  behind  a  liveried  lackey,  who  had 
just  seen  his  master  and  mistress  off  the  grounds  in  a  carriage  and 
pair. 

But  at  present  one  might  fancy  the  house  in  the  early  stage  of  a 
chancery  suit,  and  that  the  fruit  from  that  grand  double  row  of 
walnut-trees  on  the  right  hand  of  the  enclosure  would  fall  and  rot 
among  the  grass,  if  it  were  not  that  we  heard  the  booming  bark  of 
dogs  echoing  from  great  buildings  at  he  back.  And  now  the  half- 
weaned  calves  that  have  been  sheltering  themselves  in  a  gorse-built 
hovel  against  the  left-hand  wall  come  out  and  set  up  a  silly  answer 
to  that  terrible  bark,  doubtless  supposing  that  it  has  reference  to 
buckets  of  milk. 

Yes,  the  house  must  be  inhabited,  and  we  will  see  by  whom,  for 
imagination  is  a  licensed  trespasser;  it  has  no  fear  of  dogs,  but  may 
climb  over  walls  and  peep  in  at  windows  with  impunity.  Put  your 
face  to  one  of  the  glass  panes  in  the  right-hand  window;  what  do  you 
see?  A  large  open  fireplace,  with  rusty  dogs  in  it,  and  a  bare-boarded 
floor;  at  the  end  fleeces  of  wool  stacked  up;  in  the  middle  of  the  floor 
some  empty  corn-bags.  That  is  the  furniture  of  the  dining-room. 
And  what  through  the  left-hand  window?  Several  clothes-horses,  a 
pillion,  a  spinning-wheel,  and  an  old  box,  wide  open,  and  stuffed  full  of 
colored  rags.  At  the  edge  of  this  box  there  lies  a  great  wooden  doll, 
which,  so  far  as  mutilation  is  concerned,  bears  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  finest  Greek  sculpture,  and  especially  in  the  total  loss  of  its  nose. 
Near  it  there  is  a  little  chair,  and  the  butt  end  of  a  boy 's  leather  long- 
lashed  whip. 

The  history  of  the  house  is  plain  now.  It  was  once  the  residence  of 
a  country  squire,  whose  family,  probably  dwindling  down  to  mere 
spinsterhood,  got  merged  into  the  more  territorial  name  of  Donni- 
thome.  It  was  once  the  Hall;  it  is  now  the  Hall  Farm.  Like  the 
life  in  some  coast-town  that  was  once  a  watering-place  and  is  now  a 
port,  where  the  genteel  streets  are  silent  and  grass-grown,  and  the 
docks  and  ware-houses  busy  and  resonant,  the  life  of  the  Hall  has 
changed  its  focus,  and  no  longer  radiates  from  the  parlor,  but  from 
the  kitchen  and  the  farm-yard. — George  Eliot:  Adam  Bede, 


178  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Exercise  2.  Make  an  outline  of  the  composition  of 
which  the  following  paragraph  seems  to  be  an  intro- 
duction:— 

But  let  me  come  to  my  lecture.  I  want  to  divide  what  I  have  to  say 
to  you  about  biographies  into  three  parts.  I  want  to  speak  to  you 
about  the  subjects  of  biographies,  and  the  writers  of  biographies, 
and  the  readers  of  biographies.  A  life  must  first  be  lived  and  then  it 
must  be  written,  and  then  it  must  be  read,  before  the  power  of  a  biog- 
raphy is  quite  complete. — Phillips  Brooks:  Biography, 

Exercise  3.  Make  an  outline  of  the  composition  of 
which  the  following  paragraph  seems  to  be  the  conclu- 
sion or  summing  up  of  the  whole  matter. 

Then,  Sir,  from  these  six  capital  sources:  of  descent,  of  form  of  gov- 
ernment, of  religion  in  the  northern  provinces,  of  manners  in  the 
southern,  of  education,  of  the  remoteness  of  situation  from  the  first 
mover  of  government, — from  all  these  causes  a  fierce  spirit  of  iberty 
has  grown  up.  It  has  grown  with  the  growth  of  the  people  in  your 
colonies,  and  increased  with  the  increase  of  their  wealth:  a  spirit, 
that  unhappily  meeting  with  an  exercise  of  power  in  England,  which, 
however  lawful,  is  not  reconcilable  to  any  ideas  of  liberty,  much  less 
with  theirs,  has  kindled  this  flame  that  is  ready  to  consume  us. — 
Burke:  Conciliation  with  America. 

II.     Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Write  an  outline  for  a  composition  on  one  of  the 
subjects  given  in  Lesson  XXVIII,  or  XXIX,  or  on  one 
of  the  following  subjects: — 

1.  The  game  of  football.  2.  How  to  play  basket-ball. 
3.  A  typical  New  England  winter.  4.  My  Grandfather's 
farm.  5.  Why  I  like  summer.  6.  Queer  things  about 
people.  7.  Good  times  in  the  garret.  8.  Winter  sports. 
9.  Summer  resorts.      10.  My  playmates. 


LESSON  XXXI 

I.    Making  Outlines  for  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

Make  outlines  for  the  following  selections,  giving  the 
subject  of  each,  a  topic  for  each  paragraph  of  the  com- 
position, and  sub-topics  under  these  topics. 

It  behooved  me  in  these  astonishing  circumstances  to  learn  to  sew. 
Husbands,  I  was  shocked  to  find,  wore  their  stockings  into  holes, 
and  were  always  losing  buttons,  and  /  was  expected  to  "  look  to  all 
that. "  Also  it  behooved  me  to  learn  to  cook!  no  capable  servant 
choosing  to  live  at  such  an  out-of-the-way  place,  and  my  husband 
having  bad  digestion,  which  complicated  my  difficulties  dreadfully. 
The  bread,  above  all,  brought  from  Dumfries,  "soured  on  his  stom- 
ach" (O  heaven!),  and  it  was  plainly  my  duty  as  a  Christian  wife  to 
bake  at  home. 

So  I  sent  for  Corbett's  "Cottage  Economy, "  and  fell  to  work  at  a 
loaf  of  bread.  But  knowing  nothing  about  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion or  the  heat  of  ovens,  it  came  to  pass  that  my  loaf  got  put  into 
the  oven  at  the  time  that  myself  ought  to  have  been  put  into  bed; 
and  I  remained  the  only  person  not  asleep  in  a  house  in  the  middle 
of  a  desert. 

One  o'clock  struck,  and  then  two,  and  then  three;  and  still  I  was 
sitting  there  in  an  immense  solitude,  my  whole  body  aching  with 
weariness,  my  heart  aching  with  a  sense  of  forlomness  and  degra- 
dation. That  I,  who  had  been  so  petted  at  home,  whose  comfort 
had  been  studied  by  everybody  in  the  house,  who  had  never  been 
required  to  do  anything  but  cultivate  my  mind,  should  have  to  pass 
all  those  hours  of  the  night  in  watching  a  loaf  of  bread, — which 
mightn't  turn  out  bread  after  all!  Such  thoughts  maddened  me,  till 
I  laid  down  my  head  on  the  table  and  sobbed  aloud. 

It  was  then  that  somehow  the  idea  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  sitting 
up  all  night  watching  his  Perseus  in  the  furnace  came  into  my  head, 
and  suddenly  I  asked  myself:  "After  all,  in  the  sight  of  the  upper 
u  179 


180  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

powers,  what  is  the  mighty  difference  between  a  statue  of  Perseus 
and  a  loaf  of  bread,  so  that  each  be  the  thing  that  one's  hand  has 
found  to  do?"  The  man's  determined  will,  his  energy,  his  patience, 
his  resources  were  the  really  admirable  things,  of  which  his  statue 
of  Perseus  was  the  mere  chance  expression.  If  he  had  been  a  woman 
living  at  Craigenputtock,  with  a  dyspeptic  husband,  sixteen  miles 
from  a  baker,  and  he  a  bad  one,  all  these  qualities  would  have 
have  come  out  more  fitly  in  a  loaf  of  bread. 

I  cannot  express  what  consolation  this  germ  of  an  idea  spread  over 
my  uncongenial  life  during  the  years  we  lived  at  that  savage  place, 
where  my  two  immediate  predecessors  had  gone  mad,  and  the 
third  had  taken  to  drink. — Jane  Welch  Carlyle:  From  a  Letter  in 
Frmide's  "Life  of  Carlyle," 

2. 

Away  went  the  big  trout  down  the  stream,  at  a  pace  very  hard 
to  exaggerate,  and  after  him  rushed  Hilary,  knowing  that  his  line 
was  rather  short,  and  that  if  it  ran  out,  all  was  over.  Keeping 
his  eyes  on  the  water  only,  and  the  headlong  speed  of  the  fugitive, 
headlong  over  a  stake  he  fell,  and  took  a  deep  wound  from  another 
stake.  Scarcely  feeling  it,  up  he  jumped,  lifting  his  rod,  which 
had  fallen  flat,  and  fearing  to  find  no  strain  on  it.  "Aha,  he  is  not 
gone  yet  I"  he  cried,  as  the  rod  bowed  like  a  springle-bow. 

He  was  now  a  good  hundred  yards  down  the  brook  from  the  comer 
where  the  fight  began.  Through  his  swiftness  of  foot,  and  good 
management,  the  fish  had  never  been  able  to  tighten  the  line  beyond 
jdeld  of  endurance.  The  bank  had  been  free  from  bushes,  or  haply 
no  skill  could  have  saved  him;  but  now  they  were  come  to  a  comer 
where  a  nut-bush  quite  overhung  the  stream. 

*'I  am  done  for  now,"  said  the  fisherman;  "the  villain  knows 
too  well  what  he  is  about.    Here  ends  this  adventure." 

Full  though  he  was  of  despair,  he  jumped  anyhow  into  the  water, 
kept  the  point  of  his  rod  close  down,  reeled  up  a  little,  as  the  fish 
felt  weaker,  and  just  cleared  the  drop  of  the  hazel  boughs.  The  water 
flapped  into  the  pockets  of  his  coat,  and  he  saw  red  streaks  flow 
downward.  And  then  he  plunged  out  to  an  open  reach  of  shallow 
water  and  gravel  slope. 

"I  ought  to  have  you  now,"  he  said;  "though  nobody  knows 
what  a  rogue  you  are;  and  a  pretty  danoe  you  have  led  me!'! 


EX1»RESSI0N  OF  IDEAS  Igl 

Doubting  the  strength  of  his  tackle  to  lift  even  the  dead  weight 
of  the  fish,  and  much  more  to  meet  his  despairing  rally,  he  happily 
saw  a  little  shallow  gut,  or  backwater,  where  a  small  spring  ran 
out.  Into  this  by  a  dexterous  turn  he  rather  led  than  pulled  the 
fish,  who  was  ready  to  rest  for  a  minute  or  two;  then  he  stuck  his 
rod  into  the  bank,  ran  down  stream,  and  with  his  hat  in  both  hands 
appeared  at  the  only  exit  from  the  gut.  It  was  all  up  now  with  the 
monarch  of  the  brook.  As  he  skipped  and  jumped,  with  his  rich 
yellow  belly,  and  chaste  silver  sides,  in  the  green  of  grass,  joy  and 
glory  of  the  highest  merit,  and  gratitude,  glowed  in  the  heart  of 
Lorrame.  **  Two  and  three  quarters  you  must  weigh.  And  at  your 
very  best  you  are!  How  small  your  head  is!  And  how  bright  your 
spots  are! "  he  cried,  as  he  gave  him  the  stroke  of  grace.  "  You  really 
have  been  a  brave  and  fine  fellow.  I  hope  they  will  know  how 
to  fry  you." 

While  he  cut  his  fly  out  of  this  grand  trout's  mouth,  he  felt  for 
the  first  time  a  pain  in  his  knee,  where  the  point  of  the  stake  had 
entered  it.  Under  the  buckle  of  his  breeches  blood  was  soaking 
away  inside  his  gaiters;  and  then  he  saw  how  he  had  dyed  the 
water. — Blackmore:  Alice  Lorraine, 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Class  discussion. 

1.  The  illustrative  compositions  that  accompany  this 
Lesson  are  narratives  of  personal  experiences.  In  a 
few  words  give  the  substance  of  each  experience.  2.  Why 
does  the  author  take  so  much  time  to  tell  what  might 
be  told  in  a  few  words?  3.  There  is  a  humorous  vein 
running  through  both  stories.  Find  it.  4.  The 
interest  of  the  stories  does  not  lie  wholly  in  the  facts 
related.  In  what  then  besides  does  it  lie?  5.  What 
do  the  exclamations  of  Hilary  in  the  second  story  do  for 
the  narrative?  6.  Find  some  words  or  expressions  that 
seem  exactly  suited  to  the  thought  in  the  two 
selections.    7.  What  is  the  climax  of  each  story?    8. 


182  FOUNDATION  OF  IDEAS 

What  illustrations  and  examples  are  given  to  make  the 
stories  more  effective? 

More  subjects  for  long  compositions. 

Relate  a  personal  experience  of  your  own:  (1)  Your 
experience  in  landing  a  fish,  (2)  bagging  game,  (3)  being 
upset  in  a  canoe,  (4)  extricating  yourself  from  some 
scrape,  (5)  being  pursued  by  a  farmer's  dog,  (6)  being 
alone  in  the  house,  (7)  getting  accustomed  to  a  bed  of 
boughs  at  camp,  (8)  being  lost,  (9)  finding  yourself  at 
the  station  in  a  strange  place  with  no  one  to  meet  you; 
(10)  your  first  day  at  school,  (11)  or  at  church;  (12)  your 
first  experience  at  tobogganing,  (13)  at  saiHng,  (14)  in 
the  dentist's  chair,  (15)  hunting  for  hens'  nests,  (16) 
making  a  loaf  of  cake  for  company,  (17)  keeping  house 
for  mother,  (18)  taking  care  of  your  neighbor's  cross 
baby;  (19)  your  first  experience  at  roller  skating;  (20) 
your  experience  with  a  tramp;  (21)  a  night  at  your 
amateur  wireless  station;  (22)  chasing  your  pet  kitten. 


LESSON  XXXII 

I.     Position  of  Phrases  and  Clauses  in  the  Expression 
of  Ideas. 

1.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  neither 
subject  nor  predicate. 

It  was  in  the  golden  summer-time. 

2.  A  Clause  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  both 
subject  and  predicate. 

When  I  was  a  small  hoy  I  thought  that  the  moon  was  made  of  green 
cheese. 

3.  Phrases  and  clauses  may  take  the  place  of  the  parts 
of  speech. 

1.  The  man  who  lives  next  to  us  has  gone  away.  (Clause  used 
as  an  adjective  to  modify  man.) 

2.  Whoever  desires  to  do  so  may  go  home.  (Clause  used  as  a 
noun,  subject  of  may  go.) 

3.  The  boys  in  the  school  (adjective  phrase)  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  their  ability  (adverbial  phrase). 

4.  The  position  of  the  phrases  and  clauses  in  a  sen- 
tence has  much  to  do  with  making  the  sentence  both 
clear  and  forcible. 

5.  The  phrases  and  clauses  should  be  placed  with 
regard  to, — 

1.  Their  grammatical  construction. 

2.  Their  importance  to  the  reader. 

(1)  In  the  following  sentences,  either  arrange- 
183 


184  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

ment  is  grammatically  correct,  but  the  first  arrange- 
ment is  better.    Why? 

a.  When  he  entered  the  house,  the  conquest  of  his 
heart  was  complete. 

b.  The  conquest  of  his  heart  was  complete  when  he 
entered  the  house. 

(2)  In  the  following  sentence  the  position  of  the 
clause  is  neither  clear  nor  forcible  nor  grammatically 
correct.     Why? 

"The  boy  will  never  be  a  successful  man  who  thinks 
that  things  are  his  hy  right**  It  should  be,  "The  boy  who 
thinks  that  things  are  his  by  right  will  never  be  successful.'* 

Exercise  1.  Rearrange  the  following  sentences  for  the 
sake  of  force  as  well  as  clearness: — 

1.  Molly  was  fond  of  dolls  like  most  little  girls. 

2.  The  boy  spoke  up  bravely,  feehng  that  he  was  not 
to  blame. 

3.  She  did  not  notice  what  she  was  doing  in  her  distress. 

4.  School  will  begin  at  8.15,  until  further  notice. 

5.  I  hastened  to  answer,  wondering  at  my  stupidity. 

6.  Nothing  further  is  known  about  the  matter  up  to 
the  present  time. 

7.  There  is  nothing  I  like  to  do  better  than  to  lie  in  a 
hammock  when  my  work  is  done  and  my  mind  therefore 
free. 

8.  The  fields  are  green  and  the  sky  blue  in  summer  time. 

9.  A  very  exciting  and  unusual  experience  is  to  shoot 
the  rapids. 

10.  My  mother  could  not  buy  me  a  new  dress  for 
Mary's  party  for  she  was  away  at  the  time. 

11.  No  one  can  fail  to  be  lost  in  wonder  who  beholds 
Niagara  Falls  for  the  first  time. 


POSITION  OF  PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES  185 

Exercise  2,  Write  a  full  statement  in  answer  to  each 
of  the  following  questions: — 

1.  What  is  the  first  thing  a  stranger  would  naturally 
notice  on  entering  your  town? 

2.  What  are  the  best  conditions  for  good  fishing? 

3.  What  three  things  do  you  like  to  do  best?  (Answer 
by  participial  expressions.) 

4.  What  was  your  sensation  when  you  fell  and  struck 
your  head  on  the  ice? 

5.  What  was  the  most  thrilling  experience  you  had 
when  you  were  a  boy? 

6.  What  is  the  first  thing  you  do  when  you  reach  home 
after  school? 

7.  What  peculiar  natural  feature  (hill,  brook,  tree), 
is  near  your  house? 

8.  What  must  you  do  in  order  to  turn  on  the  electric 
lights? 

9.  As  you  close  your  Latin  book  after  studying,  what 
is  your  feeling? 

10.  What  kind  of  a  pupil  wins  most  honors  in  school? 

U.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Write  a  composition  of  not  more  than  fifty  or  sixty 
words,  on  one  of  the  following  subjects.  Give  especial 
attention  to  the  position  of  phrases  and  clauses,  1.  How 
to  fill  a  fountain  pen.  2.  How  a  squirrel  provides  for 
winter.  3.  How  an  oriole  (or  other  bird)  builds  its 
nest.  4.  How  to  build  a  fire.  5.  How  to  dust  a  room. 
6.  How  a  squirrel  disposes  of  his  nuts.  7.  How  to  set 
an  alarm  clock.  8.  How  to  eat  steamed  clams  success- 
fully. 9.  How  to  put  on  a  veil.  10.  How  to  pick  a 
chicken. 


LESSON  XXXIII 

I.    The  Position  of  Phrases  and  Clauses  in  the  Eicpres- 
sion  of  Ideas. 

Following  are  some  directions  to  be  regarded  in  placing 
phrases  and  clauses  in  a  sentence : — 

1.  The  most  important  positions  in  a  sentence  are  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  Therefore,  unimportant  expres- 
sions should  not  be  put  in  those  positions.  The  following 
sentence,  for  example,  may  be  arranged  in  two  different 
ways,  according  to  the  emphasis  which  the  writer  wishes 
to  put  upon  the  idea  expressed  by  the  phrase. 

At  that  time,  traveling  in  those  mountains  was  infi- 
nitely more  difficult  than  it  is  now;  or.  Traveling  in  those 
mountains  at  that  time  was  infinitely  more  difficult  than 
it  is  now. 

2.  Participial  expressions  should  not  dangle  loosely 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  They  should  be  placed 
immediately  before  or  after  the  word  which  they  modify. 
For  example, — ''  Having  finished  their  breakfast,  the  boys 
ran  to  the  boats";  or,  ^'The  boys,  having  finished  their 
breakfast,  ran  to  the  boats." 

3.  Relative  clauses  should  follow  as  closely  as  possible 
the  antecedent  of  the  relative  pronoun  which  introduces 
the  clause.  For  example, — "No  one  can  fail  to  be  lost 
in  wonder  who  beholds  Niagara  for  the  first  time,"  is  a 
bad  arrangement.  It  should  read,  "No  one  who  beholds 
Niagara  for  the  first  time  can  fail  to  be  lost  in  wonder." 

186 


POSITION  OF  PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES  187 

Exercise  1.  Select  phrases  and  clauses  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  give  the  reason  for  their  position: — 

1. 

When  the  dance  was  at  an  end,  Ichabod  was  attracted  to  a 
knot  of  the  eager  folks,  who,  with  old  Van  Tassel,  sat  smoking  at 
one  end  of  the  piazza,  gossiping  over  former  times,  and  drawing 
out  long  stories  about  the  war. — Irving. 

2. 

As  the  enraptured  Ichabod  fancied  all  this,  and  as  he  rolled  his 
great  green  eyes  over  the  fat  meadow-lands,  the  rich  fields  of  wheat, 
of  rye,  of  buckwheat,  and  Indian  com,  and  the  orchards  burthened 
with  ruddy  fruit,  which  surrounded  the  warm  tenement  of  Van 
Tassel,  his  heart  yearned  after  the  damsel  who  was  to  inherit  these 
domains. — Irving. 

3. 

As  the  eye  darts  into  these  dusky  chambers  of  death,  it  catches 
glimpses  of  quaint  effigies. — Irving. 

4. 

In  glancing  over  this  scene,  so  strangely  populous,  yet  where 
every  form  is  so  still  and  silent,  it  seems  almost  as  if  we  were  treading 
a  mansion  of  that  fabled  city,  where  every  being  had  been  suddenly 
transmuted  into  stone. — Irving. 

5. 

At  last  the  path  went  between  two  houses,  and  turned  the 
party  out  into  a  wide,  muddy  high-road,  bordered,  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach,  on  either  hand  by  an  unsightly  village.  The  houses 
stood  well  back,  leaving  a  ribbon  of  waste  land  on  either  side  of 
the  road,  where  there  were  stacks  of  firewood,  carts,  barrows,  rubbish 
heaps,  and  a  little  doubtful  grass. — Stevenson. 

6. 
We  owe  to  books  those  general  benefits  which  come  from  high 
intellectual  action. — Emerson. 

7. 
On  one  side  of  the  church  extends  a  wide  woody  dell,  along  which 
raves  a  large  brook  among  broken  rocks  and  trunks  of  fallen  trees. 
— Irving, 


188  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

8. 
In  contrast  to  these  was  the  family  of  a  wealthy  citizen,  who  had 
amassed  a  vast  fortune. — Irving. 

9. 

On  the  summit  of  one  of  the  heights  of  the  Odenwald,  a  wild 
and  romantic  tract  of  upper  Germany,  that  lies  not  far  from  the 
confluence  of  the  Maine  and  the  Rhine,  there  stood,  many  years 
since,  the  Castle  of  the  Baron  Von  Landshort. — Irving, 

10. 
In  the  meadows  wandered  black  and  white  cattle  fantastically 
marked.  One  beast,  with  a  white  head  and  the  rest  of  the  body 
glossy  black,  came  to  the  edge  to  drink,  and  stood  gravely  twitch- 
ing his  ears  at  me  as  I  went  by,  like  some  sort  of  preposterous  clergy- 
man in  a  play.  A  moment  after  I  heard  a  loud  plunge,  and,  turning 
my  head,  saw  the  clergyman  strugglmg  to  shore.  The  bank  had 
given  way  under  his  feet  — Stevenson, 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition^ 

Read  the  following  compositions: — 

1. 

The  Emperor  was  completely  prostrated  by  the  news  of  the 
naval  disaster,  and  according  to  reports  broke  down  and  wept. 
The  effect  of  the  disaster  will  be  a  terrible  blow  to  the  government. 
The  futility  of  trying  to  carry  on  the  war  on  land  is  everywhere 
recognized  and  the  cry  for  "peace  at  any  price"  is  sure  to  be  raised. 
This  time,  it  is  beheved  that  the  government  cannot  resist  such 
a  ciy. 

2. 

In  diplomatic  circles  generally  to-night,  the  belief  is  held  that 
that  if  Admiral  Locke's  defeat  is  complete  as  reported  it  is  sure 
to  be  followed  by  renewed  efforts  to  bring  about  peace.  So  far  as 
known  no  actual  move  in  this  direction  has  yet  been  made. 

3. 
An  expedition  to  the  North  Pole  under  the  patronage  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  about  to  be  organized.    The  expenses,  estimated  at 


POSITION  OF  PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES  189 

$2,000,000,  will  be  defrayed  by  a  national  lottery  on  an  extensive 
scale.    The  expedition  will  require  three  years'  preparation. 

4. 

Eleven  whaling  vessels,  comprising  almost  the  entire  fleet  which 
sailed  from  this  city,  have  been  caught  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  They 
will  not  be  able  to  get  away  until  next  July  or  August,  and  in  the 
meantime,  the  crews  of  four  hundred  forty  men  must  face  the 
hardships  of  a  winter  in  the  North. 

Class  discussion. 

1.  What  are  the  qualities  which  make  the  above  selec- 
tions excellent  telegraphic  reports?  2.  Read  the  phrases 
and  clauses  in  the  selections  and  give  reasons  for  the 
portion.  3.  What  is  the  force  of  the  following  italicized 
words  as  used  in  the  above  selections?  Disaster ,  futility ^ 
recognizedf  diplomatic^  renewed^  patronage^  estimated^ 
hardships.  4.  What  kind  of  style  is  displayed  in  the 
composition? 

Subjects  for  written  composition. 

Write  a  brief,  concise,  clear,  forcible  report  of  one  of 
the  following  events: —  1.  The  result  of  the  election  in 
your  town,  city,  or  state.  2.  Some  important  action 
taken  by  the  government  or  the  school-board  of  your 
town  or  city.  3.  Some  important  action  taken  at  your 
last  class-meeting.  4.  An  important  victory  or  defeat 
in  football,  baseball,  or  basketball.  5.  Some  new  rule 
in  your  school.  6.  Some  disaster  in  your  town  or  state. 
7.  The  home-coming  of  a  national  hero.  8.  An  inter- 
esting geological  discovery  in  your  section  of  the  state. 
9.  A  new  piece  of  construction  in  the  city  works.  10. 
Some  important  need  in  your  town  or  school. 


LESSON  XXXIV 

I.    Figures  of  Speech  in  the  Expression  of  Ideas. 

1.  Sometimes  the  idea  which  we  wish  to  express  is 
made  clearer  or  more  forcible  or  more  attractive  or  more 
vivid  by  the  use  of  what  we  call  images;  that  is,  by  the 
use  of  expressions  which  shall  present  an  image  or  picture 
to  the  mind's  eye.  For  example,  note  the  images 
presented  in  the  following: — 

"In  peace  he  was  the  gale  of  spring;  in  war,  the 
mountain-storm." 

"  Only  a  sullen  roar  came  over  the  hill,  sounding  in 
the  silence  like  the  rush  of  a  train  over  a  far-away  viaduct.'^ 

2.  Images  used  in  this  way  give  what  is  called  figurative 
language  or  Figures  of  Speech. 

3.  There  are  a  good  many  so-called  figures  of  speech, 
but  in  this  book  we  shall  consider  only  three, — Metaphor, 
Simile,  and  Personification. 

A  metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison  between 
objects  of  different  classes.  For  example, — "Life  is  an 
isthmus  between  two  eternities." 

A  simile  is  an  expressed  comparison  between 
objects  of  different  classes,  generally  used  with  like  or 
as.  For  example, — "As  the  mountains  are  round  about 
Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round  about  his  people  from 
henceforth  even  forever." 

Personification  is  a  figtire  in  which  htunan  powers 

100 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  191 

and  qualities  are  given  to  abstract  tilings.   For  example, — 
"We  wandered  where  the  river  gleamed 
'Neath  oaks  that  mused  and  pines  that  dreamed." 

4,  A  simile  may  be  compressed  into  a  metaphor;  a 
metaphor  may  be  expanded  into  a  simile,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing example : — 

Kindness  is  the  golden  chain  by  which  society  is 
bound  together.     (Metaphor.) 

Kindness  is  like  a  golden  chain  by  which  society 
is  bound  together.     (Simile.) 

5.  Figures  of  speech  should  be  used  with  great  care. 
They  should  strike  the  reader  as  being  very  fitting;  they 
should  not  be  far-fetched;  they  should  not  be  too  fre- 
quent; they  should  seem  to  be  spontaneous. 

Exercise  1.  In  the  following  selections,  find  examples 
of  simile  and  metaphor  and  personification: — 

1. 

Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  [the  Jewish  nation]  out  of  Egypt: 
thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst 
room  before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled 
the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the 
boughs  thereof  were  like  goodly  cedars. — Paalm  LXXX:  8-10. 


The  day  before  yesterday  at  sunset,  yesterday  from  the  barrack 
windows,  the  sea  was  like  a  polished  mirror  in  a  framework  of 
ebony;  the  light  flashed  upon  me  as  though  it  came  from  a  shield 
of  silver  or  steel.  I  saw  the  huUs  of  the  far-off  motionless  ships, 
for  all  the  world  as  if  they  had  been  frozen  where  they  stood.  As 
the  sun  sank  down,  the  horizon  glowed  and  lightened  Hke  a  topaas, 
or  a  precious  gem  of  orange  and  red. — Taine:  Journeys  through 
France. 


192  FOUNDAl'ION  ENGLISH 

3. 
I. 

The  Aflsyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea. 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  deep  Galilee. 

II. 

Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  Summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  Autumn  hath  blown, 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strown. 

— Byron:  The  Destruction  of  Smnacharib, 


From  the  ledge  I  could  Bee  the  whole  of  Whitton  Pond,  lying 
Just  below  me.  It  looked  like  a  silver  Maltese  cross  with  its  four 
arms  reaching  out  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass. — BoUes:  At 
the  North  of  Bearcamp  Water. 

5. 

She  walks — ^the  lady  of  my  delight— 

A  shepherdess  of  sheep. 
Her  flocks  are  thoughts.    She  keeps  them  white; 

She  guards  them  from  the  steep. 
She  feeds  them  on  the  fragrant  height, 

And  folds  them  in  for  sleep. 

— Alice  Meynell, 

6. 

A  carriage,  drawn  by  four  horses,  dashed  round  the  turn  of  the 
road.  Within  it,  thrust  partly  out  of  the  window,  appeared  the 
physiognomy  of  a  little  old  man  with  a  skin  as  yellow  as  if  his  own 
Midas-hand  had  transmuted  it.  He  had  a  low  forehead,  small, 
sharp  eyes,  puckered  about  with  innumerable  wrinkles,  and  very 
thin  lips,  which  he  made  still  thinner  by  pressing  them  forcibly 
together. — Hawthorne:  The  Great  Stone  Face. 


PlGtmES  OP  SPEECH  193 

7. 

It  is  a  beauteous  evening,  calm  and  free, 
The  holy  time  is  quiet  as  a  nun 
Breathless  with  adoration;  the  broad  sun 
Is  sinking  down  in  its  tranquillity; 
The  gentleness  of  heaven  broods  o'er  the  sea. 

— Wordsworth. 
8. 

The  night  shall  be  filled  with  music, 
And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 
ShaH  fold  their  tents,  like  the  Arabs, 
And  as  silently  steal  away. 

— Longfellow. 
9. 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams  f 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world. 

— Shakespeare. 

Exercise  2.  In  the  following  selections,  change  the 
metaphors  to  similes,  or  the  similes  to  metaphors: — 


My   heart  is  like   a  singing  bird 

Whose  nest  is  in  a  watered  short; 
My  heart  is  like  an  apple-tree 

Whose  boughs  are  bent  with  thick-set  fruit; 
My  heart  is  like  a  rainbow  shell 

That  paddles  in  a  halcyon  sea; 
My  heart  is  gladder  than  all  these 

Because  my  love  is  come  to  me. 

— Christina  Georgina  Roesetti. 


Men  are  April  when  they  woo;  December  when  they  wed» 
maids  are  May  when  they  are  maids,  but  the  sky  changes  when 
they  are  wives. — Shakespere:  As  you  Like  It. 


194:  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

3. 

like  the  dew  on  the  mountain, 
Like  the  foam  on  the  river. 

Like  the  bubble  on  the  fountain, 
Thou  art  gone;  and  for  ever! 

—Sir  W,  Scott, 


But  pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, 
You  seize  the  flow'r,  its  bloom  ia  shed; 
Or  like  the  snow-falls  in  the  river, 
A  moment  white — then  melts  for  ever; 
Or  like  the  borealis  race. 
That  flit  ere  you  can  point  their  place; 
Or  like  the  rainbow's  lovely  form 
Evanishing  amid  the  storm. — Bums:  Tarn  O'Shanter* 

6. 

But  beyond  this  fortress  stretches  a  valley,  and  beyond  this 
valley  another  line  of  mountains  softly  veiled  by  a  violet  mist  which 
rises  from  the  three  lakes — mysterious  bluish  opals,  with  which 
this  broad  valley  is  incrusted. — Bourget:  Impressions  of  Italy. 

6. 

Daniel  Webster  struck  me  much  like  a  steam-engine  in  trousers. 
— Sidney  Smith. 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 

Write  a  composition  of  not  more  than  fifty  words  on 
one  of  the  following  subjects  and  introduce  a  simile  or  a 
metaphor: — 

1.  The  lawns  in  the  morning  sunlight  after  a  fall  of 
dew  or  a  shower  of  rain.  2.  Sail-boats  in  the  distance 
when  the  sails  are  spread.  3.  The  wind  in  March  when 
we  hear  it  coming  round  the  corner  or  down  the  chim- 
ney.    4.  A  breeze  in  summer  stirring  the  leaves  of  oak 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  195 

or  pine  trees.  5.  A  round  pond  in  the  midst  of  a  green 
lawn  in  the  sunlight.  6.  A  brook  or  a  narrow  river 
winding  along  the  fields.  7.  A  mill-pond  on  a  calm  day. 
8.  Summer  clouds.  9.  A  vain  person.  10.  An  obstinate 
boy.  11.  A  happy  girl.  12.  The  period  of  school-life. 
13.  A  steam  engine.     14.  A  mill  whistle. 


LESSON  XXXV 

I.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Familiar  Letters.^ 

There  are  almost  no  rules  for  writing  familiar  letters 
except  those  prompted  by  good  breeding,  good  taste,  and 
tact.    Following  are  a  few  suggestions: — 

1.  Make  familiar  letters  as  bright  and  interesting  as 
possible,  not  only  by  writing  interesting  things  but  by 
writing  in  an  interesting  manner. 

2.  Write  about  the  ordinary  everyday  affairs  and 
thoughts  of  your  life,  remembering  at  the  same  time  to 
take  a  proper  amount  of  interest  in  your  friend's  affairs. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  make  any  personal  remark  that 
could  be  taken  in  more  than  one  way  and  thus  give 
offence  to  your  correspondent. 

4.  Much  Hberty  is  allowed  in  the  wording  of  the  formal 
address  and  the  formal  conclusion.  The  wording  varies 
with  the  intimacy  of  the  correspondents. 

5.  The  familiar  name  of  the  sender  may  take  the  place 
of  the  usual  signature — though  in  case  the  letter  should 
go  astray  it  is  better  to  include  also  the  full  name. 

6.  The  rules  of  composition,  with  regard  to  spelling, 
punctuation,  paragraphing,  and  other  matters  should 
be  strictly  followed  in  familiar  letters  as  well  as  in  other 
forms  of  composition. 

^The  subject  of  the  "familiar  letter"  is  put  here,  rather  than  in 
Part  II,  because  it  has  much  the  nature  of  the  "long"  theme. 

196 


THE  FAMILIAR  LETTER  197 

7.  White  or  cream  paper  is  always  in  good  taste. 
The  envelope  should  match  the  paper. 

n.    Expression  of  Ideas  in  Composition. 
Read  the  following  letters: — 

1, 

THOMAS  BABINGTON  MACAULAY  TO  HIS  MOTHER. 

iWrUten  at  the  age  of  14) 

Shelpobd,  April  11,  1814. 

My  dear  Mamma, — The  news  is  glorious  indeed.  Peace  I  peace 
with  a  Bourbon,  with  a  descendant  of  Henri  Quatre,  with  a  prince 
who  is  bound  to  us  by  all  the  ties  of  gratitude!  I  have  some  hopes 
that  it  will  be  a  lasting  peace,  for  the  troubles  of  the  last  twenty 
years  will  make  kings  and  nations  wiser.  I  cannot  conceive  a 
greater  punishment  to  Buonaparte  than  that  which  the  allies  have 
inflicted  on  him.  How  can  his  ambitious  mind  support  it?  All 
his  great  projects  and  schemes  which  once  made  every  throne  in 
Europe  tremble  are  buried  in  the  solitude  of  an  Italian  isle.  How 
miraculously  everything  has  been  conducted!  We  almost  seem 
to  hear  the  Almighty  saying  to  the  fallen  tyrant,  "For  this  cause 
have  I  raised  thee  up  that  I  might  show  in    thee   My   power." 

As  I  am  in  very  great  haste  with  this  letter  I  shall  have  but  little 
time  to  write.  I  am  sorry  to  hear  that  some  nameless  friend  of 
Papa's  denounced  my  voice  as  remarkably  loud.  I  have  accord- 
ingly resolved  to  speak  in  a  moderate  key  except  on  the  under- 
mentioned special  occasions.  Imprimis,  when  I  am  speaking  at  the 
same  time  with  three  others.  Secondly,  when  I  am  praising  the 
"Christian  Observer."  Thirdly,  when  I  am  praising  Mr.  Preston 
or  his  sisters,  I  may  be  allowed  to  speak  in  my  loudest  voice,  that 
they  may  hear  me. 

I  saw  to-day  the  greatest  of  churchmen,  that  pillar  of  Orthodoxy, 
that  true  friend  to  the  Liturgy,  that  mortal  enemy  to  the  Bible 
Society, — Herbert  Marsh,  D,  D.,  Professor  of  Divinity  on  Lady 
Margaret's  foundation.  I  stood  looking  at  him  for  about  ten 
minutes,  and  shall  always  continue  to  maintain  that  he  is  a  very 
ill-favored  gentleman  as  far  as  outward  appearance  is  concerned. 


198  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

I  am  going  this  week  to  spend  a  day  or  two  at  Dean  Milner's,  where 
I  hope,  nothing  unforeseen  preventing,  to  see  you  in  about  two 
months'  time. 

Ever  your  affectionate  son, 

T.  B.  Macaxjlay. 

2. 

THOMAS  HOOD  TO  MAY  ELLIOTT, 

The  Utile  daughter  of  his  friend,  Dr,  Elliott 

Monday,  April  1814. 

My  dear  May, — I  promised  you  a  letter,  and  here  it  is.  I  was 
sure  to  remember  it;  for  you  are  as  hard  to  forget,  as  you  are  soft 
to  roll  down  hill  with.  What  fun  it  was!  only  so  prickly,  I  thought 
I  had  a  porcupine  in  one  pocket,  and  a  hedgehog  in  the  other. 
The  next  time  before  we  kiss  the  earth  we  will  have  its  face  well 
shaved. 

Did  you  ever  go  to  Greenwich  Fair?  I  should  like  to  go  there 
with  you,  for  I  get  no  rolling  at  St.  John's  Wood.  Tom  and  Fanny 
only  like  roll  and  butter,  and  as  for  Mrs.  Hood,  she  is  for  rolling  in 
money. 

Tell  Dunnie  that  Tom  has  set  his  trap  in  the  balcony  and  has 
caught  a  cold,  and  tell  Jeanie  that  Fanny  has  set  her  foot  in  the 
garden,  but  it  has  not  come  up  yet.  Oh,  how  I  wish  it  were  the 
season  when  "March  winds  and  April  showers  bring  forth  May 
flowers"!  for  then  of  course  you  would  give  me  another  pretty  little 
nosegay.  Besides  it  is  frosty  and  foggy  weather,  which  I  do  not  like. 
The  other  night  when  I  came  from  Stratford  the  cold  shriveled 
me  up  so,  that  when  I  got  home,  I  thought  I  was  my  own  child! 

However,  I  hope  we  shall  all  have  a  merry  Christmas;  I  mean  to 
come  in  my  ticklesome  waistcoat,  and  to  laugh  till  I  grow  fat,  or 
at  least  streaky.  Fanny  is  to  be  allowed  a  glass  of  wine,  Tom's 
mouth  is  to  have  a  hole  holiday,  and  Mrs.  Hood  is  to  sit  up  to  supper? 
There  will  be  doings  I  And  then  such  good  things  to  eat;  but  pray, 
pray,  pray,  mmd  they  don't  boil  the  baby  by  mistake  for  the 
plump  pudding,  instead  of  a  plum  one. 

Give  my  love  to  everybody,  from  yourself  down  to  Willy,  with 
which  and  a  kiss,  I  remain  uphill  and  down  dale, 
Your  affectionate  lover, 

Thomas  Hood. 


THE  FAMILIAR  LETTER  199 


ROBERT  LOUIS  STEVENSON  TO  MISS  ANNIE  H.  IDE, 

Daughter  of  the  American  Land  Commissioner y  to  whom  he  had  pre- 
viously ^^ given  his  birthday,"  because^  having  been  bom  on  a  Christ- 
mas day,  she  regarded  herself  as  defrauded  of  her  natural  rights 
to  a  private  anniversary, 

Vailima,  Samoa  (Nov.,  1891). 
My  dear  Louisa, — Your  picture  of  the  church,  the  photograph 
of  yourself  and  your  sister,  and  your  very  witty  and  pleasing  letter, 
came  all  in  a  bundle,  and  made  me  feel  I  had  my  money's  worth 
for  that  bhrthday.  I  am  now,  I  must  be,  one  of  your  nearest  relatives; 
exactly  what  we  are  to  each  other,  I  do  not  know,  I  doubt  if  the 
case  has  ever  happened  before — your  papa  ought  to  know,  and  I 
don't  believe  he  does;  but  I  think  I  ought  to  call  you  in  the  mean- 
while, and  until  we  get  the  advice  of  counsel  learned  in  the  law, 
my  name-daughter.  Well,  I  was  extremely  pleased  to  see  by  the 
church  that  my  name-daughter  could  draw;  by  the  letter  that 
she  was  no  fool;  and  by  the  photograph,  that  she  was  a  pretty 
girl,  which  hurts  nothing. 


You  are  quite  wrong  as  to  the  effect  of  the  birthday  on  your  age. 
From  the  moment  the  deed  was  registered  (as  it  was  in  the  public 
press  with  every  solemnity),  the  13th  of  November  became  your 
own  and  only  birthday,  and  you  ceased  to  have  been  bom  on  Christ- 
mas Day.  Ask  your  father;  I  am  sure  he  will  tell  you  this  is  sound 
law.  You  are  thus  become  a  month  and  twelve  days  younger 
than  you  were,  but  will  go  on  growing  older  for  the  future  in  the 
regular  and  human  manner  from  one  13th  November  to  the  next. 
The  effect  on  me  is  more  doubtful;  I  may,  as  you  suggest,  live 
forever;  I  might,  on  the  other  hand,  come  to  pieces  like  the  one- 
horse  shay  at  a  moment's  notice;  doubtless  the  step  was  risky, 
but  I  do  not  the  least  regret  that  which  enables  me  to  sign  myself 
your  revered  and  delighted  name-father, 

RoBEBT  Louis  Stbvbnsqn. 


200  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

4. 
LETTER  FROM  CHARLES  DICKENS  TO  WILKIE  COLLINS. 

Chateau  Moulineaux, 

Rue  Beaurepaire,  Boulogne, 
Friday,  Twenty-fourth  June,   1853. 
Mt  Dear  Collins: — 

I  hope  you  are  as  well  as  I  am,  and  have  as  completely  shaken 
off  all  your  ailings.  And  I  hope,  too,  that  you  are  disposed  for 
a  long  visit  here.  We  are  established  in  a  doll's  country  house 
of  many  rooms  in  a  delightful  garden.  If  you  have  anything  to 
do,  this  is  the  place  to  do  it  in.  And  if  you  have  nothing  to  do, 
this  is  also  the  place  to  do  it  in  to  perfection. 

You  shall  have  a  Pavilion  room  in  the  garden,  with  a  delicious 
view,  where  you  may  write  no  end  of  Basils.  You  shall  get  up 
your  Italian  as  I  raise  the  fallen  fortunes  (at  present  sorely  depressed) 
of  mine.  You  shall  live,  with  a  delicate  English  graft  upon  the 
best  French  manner,  and  leam  to  get  up  eariy  in  the  morning  again. 
In  short,  you  shall  be  thoroughly  prepared  during  the  whole  summer 
season,  for  those  great  travels  that  are  to  come  off  anon. 

Do  turn  your  thoughts  this  way,  coming  by  South  Eastern  Tidal 
Train  (there  is  a  separate  list  for  that  train,  the  time  changing 
every  day  as  the  tide  varies),  you  come  in  five  hours.  No  pass 
port  wanted.  Mrs  Dickens  and  her  sister  send  their  kind  regards, 
and  beg  me  to  say  how  glad  they  will  be  to  see  you. 
W.  Wilkie  CoUms,  Esquire. 
Our  united  remembrance  to  your  mother  and  brother. 

6. 

LETTER  FROM  THOMAS  CARLYLE. 

3  MoBAY  Street,  4th  December  (1833). 
My  dear  Mother, — 

It  is  already  past  twelve  o'clock  and  I  am  tired  and  sleepy;  but 
I  cannot  go  to  rest  without  answering  the  kind  little  note  which  you 
sent  me,  and  acknowledging  these  new  instances  of  your  unwearied 
attention  to  my  interest  and  comfort.  I  rejoice  to  be  assured  that 
you  still  retain  a  moderate  share  of  health:  watch  over  it,  my  dear 
Mother,  as  the  first  of  earthly  blessings.     It  will  give  you  a  gen- 


THE  FAMILIAR  LETTER  201 

uine  satisfaction  to  know  in  return  that  I  am  daily  impioving  in 
that  point  myself.  In  another  twelvemonth,  I  expect  to  be  com- 
pletely whole.  Disorders  which  have  been  accumulating  long  must 
be  long  in  curing:  but  to  be  assured  that  one  is  recovering  is  almost 
as  good  as  to  be  recovered. 

I  am  almost  vexed  at  these  shirts  and  stockings:  I  had  already 
as  many  as  I  could  set  my  face  to.  My  dear  mother,  why  will  you 
expend  in  these  superfluities  the  pittance  I  intended  for  very  different 
ends?  I  assure  you  again,  and  would  swear  it  if  needful,  that  you 
cannot  get  me  such  enjoyment  with  it  in  any  way  as  by  convincing 
me  that  it  is  adding  to  your  own.  Do  not  therefore  frustrate  my 
purposes:  when  I  want  any  more  shirts,  etc.,  I  will  not  be  slack 
in  letting  you  know. 

I  send  you  a  small  screed  of  verses  which  I  made  some  time  ago: 
I  fear  you  will  not  care  a  doit  for  them,  though  the  subject  ia  good 
— the  deliverance  of  Switzerland  from  tyranny  by  the  hardy  moun- 
taineers at  the  battles  of   Morgarten  some  five  hundred  years  ago. 

This  is  my  birthday:  I  am  now  seven  and  twenty  years  of  age  I 
What  an  unprofitable  lout  I  ami  What  have  I  done  in  this  world 
to  make  good  my  place  in  it,  or  reward  those  that  had  the  trouble 
of  my  upbringing?  Great  part  of  an  ordinary  lifetime  is  gone  by: 
and  here  I  am,  poor  trifler,  still  sojourning  in  Meshech,  still  dwelling 
among  the  tents  of  Kedar!  May  the  great  Father  of  all  give  me 
strength  to  do  better  in  time  remaining,  to  be  of  service  in  the 
good  cause  in  my  day  and  generation,  and  "having  finished  the 
work  which  was  given  me  to  do,"  to  lie  down  and  sleep  in  peace 
and  purity  in  the  hope  of  a  happy  rising!    Amen! 

But  I  have  done.  Good  night,  my  dear  motherl  I  wish  you  sweet 
sleep  and  all  blessings. 

*   Your  affectionate  Son» 

Tho.  Cabltlb. 

Give  my  affectionate  respects  to  all  the  brothers  and  sisters;  and 
tell  them  sharply  to  write  to  me.    What  are  they  dallying  about? 

Class  discussion. 

1.  Make  an  outline  of  the  first  letter  given  in  this 
lesson.     2.  From  the  way  the  letter  is  spelled,  punctuated 


202  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

and  arranged,  what  kind  of  a  boy  should  you  judge 
Macaulay  to  have  been?  3.  The  second  and  third  let- 
ters were  written  by  grown  people  to  young  people.  On 
reading  the  letters  what  do  you  find  to  have  been  the 
aim  of  the  writers?  4.  In  the  third  letter,  Stevenson  de- 
scribes his  correspondent's  letter  as  being  "witty  and 
pleasing*'.  What  do  you  suppose  she  wrote  about  to 
make  it  so?  5.  Is  it  facts  that  make  a  letter  interesting 
or  the  way  in  which  those  facts  are  given?  6.  When 
Horace  Mann  said  in  a  letter  to  his  sister,  "Write  about 
anything.  The  whole  world  is  before  you,  and  offers 
itself  for  your  selection'',  what  did  he  mean?  7.  In  the 
letters  accompanying  this  lesson,  note  the  offhand  man- 
ner in  which  the  letter-writers  write,  the  manner  in  which 
they  make  simple  incidents  sound  attractive,  the  touches 
of  humor,  the  subjects  about  which  they  write,  the  inter- 
est which  they  show  in  their  correspondents. 

Subjects  for  familiar  letters. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  an  imaginary  or  real  friend  or 
relative  in  some  other  part  of  the  country  than  yours,  in 
which  you  describe  peculiarities  of  the  place  in  which 
you  live,  the  games  you  play,  the  school  you  go  to,  the 
things  you  think  about,  some  amusing  circumstance 
in  which  you  were  involved,  a  bit  of  good-humored  gossip 
about  a  common  friend.  In  your  letter  show  interest 
in  your  friend's  affairs  also,  by  inquiries  or  by  mention. 

2.  Write  a  letter  in  which  the  principal  topic  of  interest 
is  an  exciting  game  played  by  your  foot-ball  or  base-ball 
team. 

3.  A  letter  to  your  cousin  in  which  you  tell  of  your 
visit  to  your  grandfather's  farm. 


THE  FAMILIAR  LETTER  203 

4.  A  letter  to  your  friend  or  cousin  in  some  other 
part  of  the  country,  in  which  you  describe  some 
matter  of  local  interest, — the  great  blizzard;  the  cy- 
clone; a  terrific  thunder-shower;  the  orange  or  peach 
or  apple  harvests;  your  canoe  trip;  your  trip  to  the 
mountains  or  to  the  sea-shore;  your  latest  escapade; 
your  summer  clothes;  a  narrow  escape;  some  new 
business  venture;   your   wireless  station;  your  school. 


LESSON  XXXVI 

I.    Some  Things  to  be  Avoided  in  the  Expression  of 
Ideas. 

1.  Avoid  a  needless  change  in  the  point  of  view  in 
tense  or  voice  or  person.  Decide  whether  the  theme 
as  a  whole  is  to  be  in  the  present  tense  or  in  the  past 
tense;  in  the  active  voice  or  in  the  passive  voice;  in  the 
first,  second,  or  third  person;  and  do  not  change  without 
reason. 

In  the  following  sentences  for  example,  notice  how 
needless  and  confusing  the  changes  are: — 

1. 

The  children  danced  gaily  through  the  woods.  Except  for  their 
voices  all  is  silent.    (The  second  verb  should  be  was.) 

2. 

To  build  a  fire  place  some  shavings  at  the  bottom.  A  few  sticks 
of  kindling  wood  must  then  be  laid  on.  (The  active  voice,  impera- 
tive mood,  should  be  used  in  the  last  sentence.) 

In  the  following  sentences  the  pronouns  are  used 
correctly : — 

1. 
When  01U  climbs  the  mountains,   one  is  subject  to  manifold 
dangers. 

2. 
When  a  person  climbs  mountains,  he  is  subject  to  manifold 
dangers. 

3. 
When  you  climb  mountains  you  are  subject  to  manifold  dangers. 

204 


THINGS  TO  BE  AVOIDED  205 

2.  Avoid  such  expressions  as  was  seen,  were  heard,  in 
sentences  like  the  following: — 

1. 
As  John  walked  through  the  woods  he  heard  many  weird  sounds 
(better  than  were  heard). 

2. 
I  stood  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  and  from  it  obtained  a  wide  view 
of  the  surrounding  country  (better  than  was  obtained). 

3.  Avoid  beginning  sentences  monotonously  with  and, 
hut,  then,  it  was,  there  were,  this.  Sometimes  it  is  per- 
fectly proper  to  begin  sentences  with  these  words,  but 
young  writers  are  inclined  to  use  them  too  frequently. 

Following  are  the  first  and  the  last  version  of  a  school- 
boy's themes.     Which  is  the  better  and  why? 

1. 

It  is  a  rainy  day.  It  is  very  cold  out  of  doors  but  here  it  seems 
very  warm  and  bright.  It  is  not  very  pleasant  for  boys  and  girls  to 
have  to  stay  indoors.    I  hope  for  our  sakes  it  will  be  fine  to-morrow. 

2. 

Out  of  doors  a  cold  rain  pours  steadily  from  a  leaden  sky.  Indoors 
a  bright  fire  bums  on  the  hearth  and  seems  to  make  sunshine  in 
the  room.  Nevertheless  it  is  not  very  pleasant  for  lively  boys 
and  girls  to  be  kept  indoors,  and  I  hope  for  our  own  sakes  that  tomor- 
row will  be  a  fine  day. 

4.  Avoid  such  expressions  usually  as  /  think,  it  seems 
to  me,  and  the  like.  The  very  fact  that  we  are  putting 
our  thoughts  into  composition  form  shows  that  the  ideas 
express  what  we  think  or  what  seems  to  be  true  to  us. 

5.  Following  are  correct  expressions: — 

1. 

I  remember  seeing  him  last  year. 

2. 

I  am  going  to  stay  at  home  with  my  mother  for  a  while. 


206  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

6.  Avoid  abbreviations  in  formal  compositions,  and 
do  not  use  contractions  except  in  reported  dialogue. 

7.  The  verb  ought  is  what  is  called  a  defective  verb. 
It  has  no  perfect  tenses.     We  should  say  therefore, — 

He  ought  not  to  have  gone. 
John  ought  not  to  act  that  way. 

Exercise  1.  Give  reasons  for  the  changes  of  tense, 
voice,  or  person  in  the  following  selections: — 

1. 

From  the  matter  of  hunting,  the  talk  veered  into  a  general  com- 
parison of  Paris  and  the  country.  The  proletarian  beat  the  table 
like  a  drum  in  praise  of  Paris.  "  What  is  Paris?  Paris  is  the  cream 
of  France.  There  are  no  Parisians;  it  is  you,  and  I,  and  everybody 
who  are  Parisians.  A  man  has  eighty  chances  per  cent,  to  get  on 
in  the  world  in  Paris. "  And  he  drew  a  vivid  sketch  of  the  workman 
in  a  den  no  bigger  than  a  dog-hutch,  making  articles  that  were  to  go 
all  over  the  world.  "Eh  hieriy  quoi,  c'est  magnifigue,  ga!"  cried  he. 
— Stevenson:    An  Inland  Voyage. 

2. 
Ceylon  produces  the  elephant,  the  buffalo,  tiger,  elk,  wild  hog, 
rabbit,  hare,  flying-fox,  and  muskrat.  Many  articles  are  rendered 
entirely  useless  by  the  smell  of  musk,  which  this  latter  animal  com- 
municates in  merely  running  over  them.  Mr.  Percival  asserts,  and 
the  fact  has  been  confirmed  to  us  by  the  most  respectable  authority, 
that  if  it  even  pass  over  a  bottle  of  wine,  however  well  corked  and 
sealed  up,  the  wine  becomes  so  strongly  tainted  with  musk,  that  it 
cannot  be  used;  and  a  whole  cask  may  be  rendered  useless  in  the 
same  manner.  Among  the  great  variety  of  birds,  we  were  struck 
with  Mr.  Percival's  account  of  the  honey-bird,  into  whose  body  the 
soul  of  a  common  informer  appears  to  have  migrated.  It  makes  a 
loud  and  shrill  noise,  to  attract  the  notice  of  anybody  whom  it  may 
perceive;  and  thus  inducing  him  to  follow  the  course  it  points  out, 
leads  him  to  the  tree  where  the  bees  have  concealed  their  treasure ; 
after  the  apiary  has  been  robbed,  this  feathered  scoundrel  gleans 
bw  reward  from  the  hive.    The  list  of  Ceylonese  snakes  is  hideous; 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  20T 

and  we  become  reconciled  to  the  crude  and  cloudy  land  in  which 
we  live,  from  reflecting,  that  the  indiscriminate  activity  of  the  sun 
generates  what  is  loathsome,  as  well  as  what  is  lovely ;  that  the  asp 
reposes  under  the  rose ;  and  the  scorpion  crawls  under  the  fragrant 
flower  and  the  lucious  fruit. 

The  usual  stories  are  repeated  here  of  the  immense  size  and  vora- 
cious appetite  of  a  certain  species  of  serpent.  The  best  history  of 
this  kind  we  ever  remember  to  have  read,  was  of  a  serpent  killed 
near  one  of  our  settlements,  in  the  East  Indies,  in  whose  body  they 

found  the  chaplain  of  the  garrison,  all  in  black,  the  Rev.  Mr. 

somebody  or  other,  whose  name  we  have  forgotten,  and  who,  after 
having  been  missing  for  above  a  week,  was  discovered  in  this  very 
inconvenient  situation.  The  dominions  of  the  Ring  of  Candy  are 
partly  defended  by  leeches,  which  abound  in  the  woods,  and  from 
which  our  soldiers  suffered  in  the  most  dreadful  manner.  The 
Ceylonese,  in  compensation  for  their  animated  plagues,  are  endowed 
with  two  vegetable  blessings,  the  cocoanut  tree  and  the  talipot  tree. 
The  latter  affords  a  prodigious  leaf,  impenetrable  to  sun  or  rain,  and 
large  enough  to  shelter  ten  m^n.  It  is  a  natural  umbrella,  and  is  of 
aa  eminent  service  in  that  country  as  a  great  coat  tree  would  be  in 
this.  A  leaf  of  the  talipot  tree  is  a  tent  to  the  soldier,  a  parasol 
to  the  traveller,  and  a  book  to  the  scholar.  The  cocoanut  tree 
affords  bread,  milk,  oil,  wine,  spirits,  vinegar,  yeast,  sugar,  cloth, 
paper,  huts,  and  ships. — Sidney  Smith, 

Exercise  2.  Examine  the  sentences  in  the  selections 
given  above  and  make  notes  on  the  way  the  author 
begins  his  sentences. 

Exercise  3.  Write  two  or  three  sentences  telling  what 
you  think  about  the  work  of  writing  themes;  or  what 
you  think  about  one  of  your  other  studies.  In  writing 
these  sentences,  observe  the  cautions  given  with  this 
Lesson. 


EXPRESSION  OF  IDEAS  IN  THE  LONG  THEME 

SUMMARY  OF  PART  III,  LESSONS  XXVII- 
XXXVI 

I.    The  Use  of  the  Paragraph  in  the  Long  Theme. 

1.  A  paragraph  is  a  collection  of  sientences  all  bearing 
on  one  easily-discovered  subject. 

2.  A  paragraph  may  represent  a  natural  division  of 
thought  in  a  whole  composition,  or  it  may  exist  as  a 
complete  composition  in  itself. 

3.  The  distinguishing  mark  of  a  paragraph  is  that  it 
is  indented, — that  is,  the  first  Hne  is  set  in  from  the 
margin. 

4.  The  te^t  of  unity  in  a  paragraph  is  to  see  if  the 
thought  of  the  paragraph  can  be  summed  up  in  one 
sentence. 

5.  The  ideal  paragraph  has 

(1)  An  introductory  or  topic  sentence  giving  the 
subject  about  which  the  paragraph  is  to  be. 

(2)  A  group  of  sentences  developing,  explaining, 
exemplifying,  or  illustrating  the  thought  contained 
in  the  introductory  or  topic  sentence. 

(3)  A  concluding  sentence  which  serves  to  bind 
together  or  to  sum  up  the  whole  of  the  thought 
contained  in  the  paragraph. 

6.  In  conversational  paragraphs  the  speeches  of  the 
different  persons  are  paragraphed.     Explanatory  matter 

208 


SUMMARY  209 

coining  between  speeches  is  combined  with  the  speech 
to  which  it  is  most  nearly  related. 

7.  Every  paragraph  should  bear  directly  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  whole  composition. 

8.  In  order  to  make  the  paragraphs  hang  together 
well  there  should  be  some  connecting  word  or  words 
between  paragraphs. 

n.  The  Outline,  (pp.  175-182.) 

III.  Position  of  Phrases  and  Clauses. 

1.  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  neither 
subject  nor  predicate. 

2.  A  clause  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  both 
subject  and  predicate. 

(1)  Phrases  and  clauses  may  take  the  place  of 
the  parts  of  speech. 

3.  The  phrases  and  clauses  in  a  sentence  should  be 
placed  with  due  regard  to 

(1)  Their  grammatical  construction. 

(2)  Their  importance  to  the  reader. 

4.  The  most  important  positions  in  a  sentence  are  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  Therefore  unimportant  expres- 
sions should  not  be  put  in  those  positions. 

5.  Participial  expressions  should  not  dangle  loosely 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  They  should  be  placed 
immediately  before  or  after  the  word  they  modify. 

6.  Relative  clauses  should  follow  as  closely  as  possible 
the  antecedent  of  the  relative  pronoun  which  introduces 
the  clause. 

IV.  Figures  of  Speech. 

1.  Images  used  to  make  an  idea  clearer  or  more  forcible 


210  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

or  more  vivid  or  more  attractive  give  what  is  called 
figurative  language  or  Figures  of  Speech. 
2.  A  few  of  these  figures  are, — 

(1)  Metaphor,   an  implied  comparison  between 
objects  of  different  classes. 

(2)  Simile,  an  expressed  comparison  between  ob- 
jects of  different  classes,  generally  used  with  like  or  as. 

(3)  Personification,    a   figure   in    which    human 
characteristics  are  given  to  abstract  things. 

V.  The  Familiar  Letter. 

1.  Make  familiar  letters  as  bright  and  interesting  as 
possible,  not  only  by  writing  about  interesting  things 
but  by  writing  in  an  interesting  manner. 

2.  Write  about  the  ordinary  everyday  affairs  and 
thoughts  of  your  life,  remembering  at  the  same  time  to 
take  a  proper  amount  of  interest  in  your  friend's  affairs. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  make  any  personal  remark  that 
could  be  taken  in  more  than  one  way,  and  thus  give 
offence  to  your  correspondent. 

4.  Much  hberty  is  allowed  in  the  wording  of  the 
formal  address  and  the  formal  conclusion.  The  wording 
varies  with  the  intimacy  of  the  correspondents. 

5.  The  familiar  name  of  the  sender  may  take  the  place 
of  the  usual  signature,  though  in  case  the  letter  should 
go  astray  it  is  better  to  include  also  the  full  name. 

6.  The  rules  of  composition,  with  regard  to  spelling, 
punctuation,  paragraphing,  and  other  matters  should 
be  strictly  followed  in  familiar  letters  as  well  as  in 
other  forms  of  composition. 

VI.  Some  Things  to  be  Avoided  in  the  Expression  of 
Ideas.    <pp.  204-207.) 


APPENDIXES 


u 


APPENDIX  A 

A  BRIEF  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR 

The  Sentence :    Subject  and  Predicate. 

1.  The  sentence  is  a  complete  thought  expressed  in 
words  that  are  grammatically  united. 

2.  Every  complete  sentence  has  a  subject  and  a  pred- 
icate. The  subject  is  that  about  which  something  is 
asserted.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  asserted  of  the 
subject.  The  subject  and  the  predicate  may  each  con- 
sist of  only  one  word,  called  the  simple  subject  and  the 
simple  predicate;  or  each  may  consist  of  a  group  of 
words,  called  the  complete  subject  and  the  complete 
predicate;  for  example,  in  the  sentence  given  below, 
the  simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate  are  in 
itahcs.  The  complete  subject  is  at  the  left  of  the  ver- 
tical line,  the  complete  predicate  at  the  right. 

A  flock  of  screaming  geese  \  Hew  over  the  neighboring  woods. 

Phrases  and  Clauses. 

1.  Sentences  may  contain  in  addition  to  the  subject 
or  predicate,  groups  of  related  words  called  phrases  or 
clauses. 

(l)  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  no 
subject  and  no  predicate. 

I  live  in  BostoUf  on  a  very  pretty  street. 

213 


214  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

(2)  A  clause  is  a  group  of  related  words  having  both 
subject  and  predicate. 

I  live  in  Boston,  which  is  the  best  city  in  the  world. 

The  Parts  of  Speech. 

Each  word  in  a  sentence  is  named  according  to  its 
use  in  the  sentence.  There  are  eight  parts  of  speech 
named  and  defined  as  follows: — 

1.  A  Noun  is  a  word  used  as  the  name  of  some- 
thing. 

2.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  its 
antecedent. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  are  called  substantives. 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  Hmit  or  qualify 
nouns  or  pronouns. 

4.  A  Verb  is  a  word  or  phrase  used  to  assert  the  state, 
action,  or  being  of  some  subject. 

5.  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  verbs,  adjec- 
tives, or  other  adverbs. 

6.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  its  object  and  some  other  word  in  the 
sentence. 

7.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses. 

8.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  sudden  or 
strong  emotion. 


THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 


215 


The  following  sentence  gives  examples  of  the  parts 
of  speech : — 

Alas,  idle  and  disobedient  boys  often  fail  in  their  studies. 


Word 

Use  in  the  sentence 

Part  of  Speech 

Alas 

Used  to  express  emotion. 

interjection 

idle 
disobedient 

Used  to  qualify  boys. 

adjective 

and 

Used  to  connect  idle  and  dis- 
obedient. 

conjunction 

boys 
studies 

Used  to  name  something. 

noun 

fail 

Used  to  assert  something  of  the 
subject. 

verb 

often 

Used  to  modify  the  verb. 

adverb 

in 

Used  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween object  studies  and  the 
woid  fail. 

preposition 

their 

Used  instead  of  the  noun  boys. 

pronoun 

Classification  of  Sentences. 

I.  The  sentence,  classified  according  to  its  structure 
may  be  simple,  complex,  compound,  or  compound-com- 
plex. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  is  one  which  has  but  one  sub- 
ject and  one  predicate. 


216  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

2.  A  complex  sentence  is  one  which  has  an  independ- 
ent or  principal  clause,  and  one  or  more  dependent  or 
subordinate  clauses. 

3.  A  compoimd  sentence  is  one  which  has  two  or 
more  independent  clauses. 

4.  A  compound-complex  sentence  is  a  compound 
sentence  which  has  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses. 

II.  The  sentence,  classijfied  according  to  its  form, 
may  be  dedarativej  interrogative ^  imperativef  or  exclama- 
tory, 

1.  A  declarative  sentence  is  one  in  which  something 
is  asserted  or  declared  of  the  subject. 

2.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which  asks  a 
question. 

3.  An  imperative  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  a 
command. 

4.  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  which  expresses 
sudden  or  strong  emotion. 

Examples  of  classes  of  sentences  follow: — 

1.  You  have  done  the  work  beautifully.    (Simple,  declarative.) 

2.  Have  you  done  the  work  as  well  as  you  knew  how?  (Complex, 
interrogative.) 

3.  How  beautifully  you  have  done  the  work.  (Simple,  exclama- 
tory.) 

4.  Do  the  work  as  well  as  you  know  how.    (Complex,  imperative.) 
6.  I  did  the  work  as  well  as  I  could,  but  Mary  did  it  much  better. 

(Compound-complex,  declarative.) 

Classification  of  Phrases  and  Clauses, 

PHRASES. 

I.  Certain  phrases  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  structure  as  follows: — 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PHRASES  217 

1.  A  prepositional  phrase  consists  of  a  preposition 
with  its  object  and  intervening  words. 

In  the  garden  were  all  sorts  of  flowers. 

2.  A  participial  phrase  consists  of  a  participle  with  its 
object  and  intervening  words. 

Having  seen  my  old  friend  I  returned  home. 

3.  An  infinitive  phrase  consists  of  an  infinitive  with 
its  object  and  intervening  wdrds. 

It  is  refreshing  to  see  the  blue  ocean. 

II.  Certain  phrases  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  use  as  follows: — 

1.  A  noun  phrase  is  one  which  may  be  used  as  a  noun. 
To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.    (Infinitive  phrase  used  as  the  subject.) 

2.  An  adjective  phrase  is  one  which  may  be  used  as  an 
adjective. 

The  oak  tree  on  the  hill  casts  a  grateful  shade.    (Prepositional 
phrase  used  as  an  adjective  to  modify  tree,) 

3.  An  adverbial  phrase  is  one  which  may  be  used  as  an 
adverb. 

The  old  oak  tree  fell  in  the  night.     (Prepositional  phrase  used  as  an 
adverb  to  modify  fell.) 

III.  1.  Certain  groups  of  words  we  sometimes  call 
verb  phrases. 

I  will  write. 

He  will  have  been  there  before  you. 

2.  When    adverbs,    prepositions,    and    conjunctions 


218  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

consist  of  more  than  one  word,  we  sometimes  call  them 
phrase  adverbs,  phrase  prepositions,  phrase  conjunctions. 

At  length  he  went  home.  (Phrase  adverb.)  Instead  of  a  common 
soldier,  came  a  corporal.  (Phrase  preposition.)  John  as  well  as 
Mary  was  there.     (Phrase  conjunction.) 

CLAUSES. 

1.  An  independent  or  principal  clause  is  one  which, 
when  standing  alone,  is  complete  in  meaning. 

2.  A  dependent  or  subordinate  clause  is  one  which, 
when  standing  alone,  is  not  complete  in  meaning;  for 
example,  in  the  sentence,  /  returned  yesterday  from  Bos- 
ton,  where  I  saw  many  things  of  interest,  the  principal 
or  independent  clause,  /  returned  yesterday  from  Boston, 
is  complete  in  meaning  when  standing  alone.  The  sub- 
ordinate or  dependent  clause,  where  I  saw  many  things 
of  interest,  is  not  complete  in  meaning  when  standing  alone. 

3.  Dependent  or  subordinate  clauses  are  usually  joined 
to  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  means  of  conjunctive 
words,  such  as  the  relative  pronouns,  who,  which,  that 
and  as;  the  conjunctive  adverbs  when,  where,  how,  etc.; 
the  subordinate  conjunctions  that,  as,  since,  because,  etc. 

4.  Subordinate  clauses  may  be  used  as  nouns,  adjec- 
tives, or  adverbs. 

1 .  I  did  not  dream  that  you  would  he  so  long  coining.  (Subordinate 
clause  used  as  a  noun,  the  object  of  dream.) 

2.  I  will  see  you  when  you  come  again.  (Subordinate  clause  used 
as  an  adverb,  modifies  will  see.) 

3.  That  boy  who  is  sitting  there  is  my  brother.  (Subordinate 
clause  used  as  an  adjective,  modifies  boy.) 

Phrases  and  clauses  when  used  as  nouns  are  called 
substantive  phrases  or  clauses. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  NOUNS 


219 


Classification  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 
NOUNS. 

1.  A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied 
to  any  part  or  to  all  of  a  class  of  objects;  as,  house,  tree, 
state,  buildings,  forests,  countries. 

2.  A  proper  noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied  to 
a  particular  individual  of  a  class  of  objects;  as,  White- 
House,  Washington  Elm,  Pennsylvania,  Mr.  Townsend. 

3.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  an 
attribute  considered  apart  from  the  object  to  which  it 
belongs;  as,  size,  height,  beauty. 

4.  A  collective  noun  is  one  that  even  in  the  singular 
form  denotes  a  number  of  separate  persons  or  things,  as, 
committee,  army,  flock,  council,  jury. 

5.  A  verbal  noun  in  -ing  may  be  formed  from  most 
verbs;  as,  running,  jumping,  thinking. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  NOUNS. 
The  goodness  of  the  ruler,  Prince  Otto,  and  the  giving  of  his  time, 
were  appreciated  by  the  Embassy. 


Word 

Use  in  the  sentence 

Classification 

goodness 

Name  of  an  attribute. 

abstract  noun. 

giving 

Formed  from  a  verb. 

verbal  noun 

ruler 

Name  common  to  a  class  of 
individuals. 

common  noun 

Prince  Otto 

Name  applied  to  an  individual 
of  the  class. 

proper  noun 

Embassy 

Name  given  to  a  collection  of 
individuals  considered  as  one. 

collective  noun 

220  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

PRONOUNS. 

1.  A  personal  pronoun  is  one  which  shows  by  its  form 
whether  it  is  the  person  or  persons  speaking  (/,  we), 
the  person  or  persons  spoken  to  {you),  the  person  or 
thing,  or  persons  or  things,  spoken  of  {he,  she,  it,  they). 

A  compound  personal  pronoun  is  formed  by  combining 
self  or  selves  with  one  of  the  forms  of  the  personal  pro- 
noun; as,  myself,  yourself,  ourselves,  himself,  themselves. 

The  compound  personal  pronoun  has  two  uses: — 

(1)  It  is  used  to  empha^ze  the  noun  or  pronoun. 
When  thus  used  it  is  called  an  intensive. 

I  myself  saw  it  done. 
John  himself  was  there. 

(2)  It  is  used  to  refer  back  to  the  subject.  When 
thus  used  it  is  called  a  reflexive. 

The  thief  shot  himself. 

2.  A  relative  pronoun  is  one  which  is  used  to  represent 
a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun  called  its  antecedent.  The 
relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  that,  and  sometimes 
as.  Who  stands  for  persons,  which  for  animals  and  inan- 
imate things,  and  that  and  as  may  stand  for  either. 

A  compound  relative  pronoun  is  formed  by  combining 
80,  ever,  and  soever  with  the  relative  pronouns. 

What  is  a  kind  of  a  compound  relative  pronoun, 
including  both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is 
equivalent  to  that  which. 

I  saw  what  {that  which)  he  did. 

When  as  is  a  relative  pronoun,  it  follows  as  many^ 
such,  or  same. 

My  book  is  the  same  as  yours. 
Ae  many  as  can  crowd  in  may  go. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PRONOUNS  221 

The  relative  when  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  is  often 
omitted  in  the  adjective  clause;  as,  for  example, — 

The  people  (whom)  1  visited  have  gone  to  Europe. 
The  book  (which)  he  wanted  was  not  in  the  library. 

3.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  which  is  used  in 
asking  a  question.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are 
whot  which?  whatt 

4.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  is  used  to  point  out  or 
designate  definite  persons  or  things.  The  demonstrative 
pronouns  are  this  and  these,  that  and  those.  They  may  be 
used  as  adjectives  or  as  pronouns  and  are  often  called 
adjective  pronouns,  or  pronominal  adjectives. 

5.  An  indefinite  pronoun  is  used  to  point  out  or 
designate  persons  or  things  in  an  indefinite  or  gen- 
eral manner.  Some  examples  are  any,  both,  each, 
either,  neither,  some,  such.  They  may  be  used  as  pro- 
nouns or  as  adjectives  and  are  often  called  adjective 
pronouns  or  pronominal  adjectives. 

It  and  they  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  without 
an  antecedent  and  may  be  called  expletives;  as,  It  is 
raining  hard.     They  say  that  there  are  to  be  hard  times. 
It  is  often  used  to  anticipate  the  subject  of  a  verb;  as, 
It  is  a  good  thing  to  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord,  equiva- 
lent to.  To  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord  is  a  good  thing. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  PRONOUNS. 

That  is  a  boy  whom  I  admire — ^the  one  who  is  passing.  He  always 
does  what  he  is  told  to  do,  because  he  knows  it  is  best  to  do  it.  Any 
errand  which  is  given  him  to  do  he  does  himself,  and  as  well  as  I 
myself  could  do  it.  If  it  stormi  he  is  not  deterred  by  such  consid- 
erations as  his  own  comfort.  Who  is  he,  do  you  think?  (See  the 
table  on  the  following  page.) 


222 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Word 

Use  in  the  sentence 

Classification 

that 

Points  out  a  definite  individual. 

demonstrative 
pronoun 

whom 

Represents  the  antecedent  boy. 

relative  pronoim 

I 

Stands  for  the  person  speaking. 

personal  pronoim 

one 

Points  out  an  individual  in  a 
general  manner. 

indefinite  pronoun 

he 

Stands  for  the  person  spoken  of. 

personal  pronoun 

what 

Stands  for  something  equivalent 
to  that  which. 

compound  relative 
pronoun 

it 

Anticipates  the  subject. 

personal  pronoun 

which 

Represents  the  antecedent  errand. 

relative  pronoun 

him 

Stands  for  the  person  spoken  of. 

personal  pronoun 

himself 

Self  combined  with  the  personal 
pronoun  and  used  as  a  reflex- 
ive. 

compound  personal 
pronoim 

myself 

Self  combined  with  the  personal 
pronoun  and  used  as  an  in- 
tensive. 

compound  personal 
pronoun. 

it 

Stands  for  the  thing  spoken  of. 

personal  pronoun 

it 

Stands  for  something  indefinite. 
Used  as  an  expletive. 

indefinite  personal 
pronoun 

as 

Represents  the  antecedent  con- 
sideration. 

relative  pronoim 

his 

Stands  for  the  person  spoken  of. 

personal  pronoun 

who 

Used  to  ask  a  question. 

interrogative 
pronoun 

you 

Stands  for  the  person  spoken  to. 

personal  pronoim 

that 

Represents  the  antecedent  one. 

relative  pronoun 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADJECTIVES  223 


ADJECTIVES. 

1.  A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  describes  or 
names  a  quality  of  a  noun;  as,  a  sweet  apple,  a  beautiful 
day. 

2.  A  limiting  adjective  is  one  which  limits  or  restricts 
the  meaning  of  a  noun,  without  naming  its  qualities;  as, 
this  girl,  one  boy. 

3.  Articles.  The  particular  limiting  adjectives,  a,  an, 
and  the  are  called  articles.  The  is  called  a  definite 
article  because  it  points  out  some  particular  thing.  A 
and  an  are  called  indefinite  articles  because  they  do  not 
point  out  any  particular  thing.  An  ia  used  before  a 
word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  with  silent  h;  a,  before 
words  beginning  with  consonants  or  with  the  sound  of 
y  or  w;  as.  An  elm  tree,  a  cactus  tree,  a  yew  tree,  a  work- 
shop. 

4.  A  numeral  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which 
is  used  to  express  a  number.  The  numerals  are  divided 
into  cardinal  and  ordinal. 

The  cardinal  numerals  show  how  many;  as,  twenty-one 
books,  three  days. 

The  ordinal  numerals  show  which  one  of  a  series,  how 
large  a  part,  etc.;  as,  the  twenty-first  day  of  June,  the 
third  day,  a  fourth  part  of  an  apple. 

5.  The  interrogative  adjectives  are  which  and  what;  as. 
What  book  is  that?     Which  book  do  you  want? 

6.  A  demonstrative  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective 
which  ie  used  to  point  out  or  designate  definite  persons 
or  things.  The  demonstrative  adjectives  are  this  and 
these,  that  and  those. 


224  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

What  boy  do  you  mean?  I  don't  see  any  boy  such  as  you  describOi 
among  the  fifteen  or  twenty  people  who  are  standing  there.  O,  you 
mean  that  boy  with  the  fair  hair,  by  the  first  post.  He  certainly 
is  a  good-looking  American  boy,  and  he  is  on  the  winning  side. 


Word. 

Use  in  the  sentence. 

Classification. 

what 

Used  to  ask  a  question. 

interrogative  adjec- 
tive 

any 

Used  to  limit  the  noun  boy 
Points  out  in  a  general  man- 
ner. 

indefinite  limiting 
adjective 

fifteen 
twenty 

Used  to  limit  noun  people  and 
tells  how  many. 

cardinal  ntmieral 
adjective 

that 

Used  to  limit  the  noun  boy, 
and  points  out  definitely- 

demonstrative  lim- 
iting adjective 

the 

Used  to  point  out  a  particular 
thing  definitely. 

definite  article 

fair 

Used  to  describe  the  noun 
hair. 

qualifying  adjective 

first 

Used  to  limit  noun  post,  and 
shows  which  one. 

ordinal   numeral 
adjective 

a 

Used  to  point  out  a  particular 
thing  indefinitely. 

indefinite  article 

good-look- 
ing 

Used  to  describe  the  noun 
boy. 

qualifying  adjective 

American 

Used   to  describe  the  noun 
boy,   formed    from  proper 
noun  America. 

proper  adjective 

Used  to  describe   side,  and 
formed  from  verb  vnn. 

participial  adjective 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS  225 

7.  An  indefinite  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which 
is  used  to  point  out  or  designate  persons  or  things  in  an 
indefinite  manner;  as,  none,  any,  such,  whole,  some,  both, 
another. 

Both  demonstrative  and  indefinite  adjectives  may  be 
used  without  their  nouns  and  may  then  be  called  adjec- 
tive pronouns. 

8.  Adjectives  formed  from  proper  nouns  are  called 
proper  adjectives;  as,  the  English  people.  The  Italian 
embassy. 

9.  Adjectives  that  are  forms  of  verbs  are  called 
participial  adjectives;  as.  The  running  stream.  The 
whistling  wind. 

VERBS. 

1.  Verbs  classified  according  to  their  use  may  be  trans- 
itive or  intransitive. 

Verbs  classified  according  to  their  form  may  be  regular 
or  irregular. 

2.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs. 

1.  A  transitive  verb  is  one  which  requires  an  object 
to  complete  its  meaning. 

He  gave  an  apple  to  the  boy. 

2.  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  which  does  not  require 
an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

Some  verbs  are  either  transitive  or  intransitive, 
according  to  their  meaning. 


?26  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

He  runs  as  fast  as  he  can.    (Intransitive.) 
He  runs  the  null  night  and  day.    (Transitive.) 

3.  Some  transitive  verbs  in  addition  to  the  dired 
object  require  an  indirect  object  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing. The  indirect  object  shows  to  whom  or  for  whom  or 
what  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  was  performed. 

The  judge  gave  the  winner  the  prize.  (Prize  is  the  direct  object 
of  gave,  and  winner  is  the  indirect  object,  showing  to  whom  the  prize 
was  given.) 

4.  Some  transitive  verbs  in  addition  to  the  direct 
object  require  a  complement  referring  to  it.  This  com- 
plement may  be  a  noun  or  an  adjective,  and  is  called  the 
objective  complement. 

They  called  Mm  Ned.  (Him  is  the  direct  object  of  called.  Ned 
helps  to  complete  the  meaning  of  called  and  refers  to  him.) 

Make  the  path  smooth.  (Smooth  is  an  adjective  used  as  the  objec- 
tive complement  of  make  and  referring  to  path.) 

3.  Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs. 

1.  A  regular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past  tense 
and  the  past  participle  are  formed  by  adding  d,  ed, 
or  t  to  the  root  form;  as,  love^  (present),  lovedj 
(past),  loved,  (past  participle);  hum,  burned  or 
burnt,  burned  or  burnt, 

2.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past 
tense  and  the  past  participle  are  formed  without 
an  ending;  as,  begin,  (present),  began,  (past),  begun, 
(past  participle). 

Regular  verbs  are  sometimes  called  weak  verbs, 
and  irregular  verbs,  strong  verbs. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS  227 

4.  Copulative  Verbs. 

1.  A  copulative  verb  is  one  which  requires  a 
complement  that  describes  or  limits  its  subject;  as, 
Art  is  long.  Soldiers  are  heroes.  Men  often  become 
great. 

2.  The  commonest  of  the  copulative  verbs  is  be 
in  its  various  forms.  Some  other  copulative  verbs 
are  appear ^  become,  feel,  look,  seem,  sound,  smell,  taste. 
Into  the  meaning  of  all  these  verbs,  be  enters. 

The  boy  appears  well = The  boy  is  well  in  appearance. 
The  milk  tastes  sour  =  The  milk  is  sour  in  taste. 

3.  The  complement  of  a  copulative  verb  is  either 
a  predicate  adjective  or  a  predicate  noun,  or  some 
expression  that  may  be  substituted  for  either. 

5.  Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  which  are  employed  in 
conjugating  other  verbs.  The  principal  auxiliary  verbs 
are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must. 

6.  Defective  Verbs  are  certain  verbs  like  must  and 
ought  which  lack  one  or  more  of  their  parts. 

7.  Impersonal  Verbs  are  certain  verbs  used  without 
any  real  subject,  the  meaningless  word  it  serving  as  an 
expletive;  as,  It  is  raining  hard.     It  snowed  all  night. 

7.  An  Infinitive  is  a  word  which  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  both  verb  and  noun.  It  may  take  an  object,  and  it 
may  be  modified  by  an  adverbial  expression.  The 
infinitive  has  two  forms:  (1)  The  root  infinitive, — ^the 
simple  form  of  the  verb  with  to  expressed  or  understood; 
as,  I  want  to  go  to  school.  I  let  him  (to)  take  the  book. 
(2)  The  infinitive  in  -ing;  as,  Going  to  the  games  is  very 
enjoyable. 


228 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


EXAMPLES  OF  CLASSIFIED  VERBS. 

It  rains  in  torrents.  I  am  lonesome,  and  the  wind  howling  down 
the  chimney  makes  me  blue.  I  meant  to  embroider  a  collar,  but  toill 
read  a  book  instead.  Sitting  by  the  fireside  is  better  than  being  out 
of  doors.    Give  me  a  good  book,  please. 


Verbs 

Classification 

rains 

Regular,  intransitive,  impersonal. 

am 

Copulative,  irregular,  intransitive,  with  predicate 
adjective. 

howling 

Participle. 

makes 

Irregular,  transitive,  with  direct  object  and  objec- 
tive complement. 

meant 

Irregular,  transitive. 

to  embroider 

Infinitive. 

will 

Auxiliary  used  to  conjugate  read. 

read 

Irregular,  transitive,  with  direct  object. 

sitting 

Infinitive  in  -ing,  used  as  a  noun. 

being 

Infinitive  in  -ing,  used  as  a  noun. 

give 

Irregular,  transitive,  with  indirect  and  direct 
object. 

8.  A  Participle  is  a  word  that  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  both  verb  and  adjective.  It  may  take  an  object  and  it 
may  be  modified  by  an  adverbial  expression.     Example: 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS  229 

The  boys,  having  finished  their  game,  went  home.     The 
man  hoeing  the  potatoes  is  much  tanned. 

9.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present,  the 
past,  and  the  past  participle. 

ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  may  be  divided  according  to  their  meaning 
into  four  general  classes, — (1)  adverbs  of  time,  (2) 
adverbs  of  place,  (3)  adverbs  of  manner,  (4)  adverbs 
of  degree. 

1.  Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions,  When?  How 
long?    How  often? 

Today.    Forever.    Frequently. 

2.  Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions,  Where? 
Whither?     Whence? 

Here.     There.    Everywhere.    Afar, 

3.  Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  questions,  Howt 
In  what  way? 

Oayly.    Forcibly.     Usually. 

Adverbs  of  manner  are  usually  formed  from  qualifying 
adjectives  by  adding  -ly;  as,  generality  =  generally. 

4.  Adverbs  of  degree  answer  the  questions,  How 
much?     To  what  extent? 

Much  pleased.     Hardly  able.    Supremely  good. 

EXAMPLES  OF  CLASSIFIED  ADVERBS. 

Surely  you  will  stay  to-day,  or  at  least  until  John  comes.  The  sun 
shines  brightly,  and  the  day  is  much  pleasanter  than  yesterday. 
Come  here  quickly  and  tell  me  when  you  are  going.  When  shall 
you  come  again?  There  is  no  use  in  going  there  now.  You  would 
please  me  very  greatly  if  you  would  stay. 


230 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Adverbs 

Use  in  the  sentence 

Classification 

Surely 

Used  in  ma,king  a  state- 
ment. 

modal  adverb 

to-day 

Answers  the  question 
How  longf 

adverb  of  time 

at  least 

Idiomatic  expression. 

phrase  adverb 

brightly 

Answers  the  question 
How? 

adverb  of  manner 

much 

Answers  the  question 
How  much? 

adverb  of  degree 

yesterday 

Answers  the  question 
When? 

adverb  of  time 

here 

Answers  the  question 
Where? 

adverb  of  place 

quickly 

Answers  the  question 
Howf 

adverb  of  manner 

when 

Introduces  the  clause. 

conjunctive  adverb 

when 

Used  in  asking  a  ques- 
tion. 

interrogative  adverb 

again 

Answers  the  question 
When? 

adverb  of  time 

there 

Used  with  is  following  it. 

expletive 

there 

Answers  the  question 
Where? 

adverb  of  place 

now 

Answers  the  question 
When? 

adverb  of  time 

very 

Answers  the  question 
How  much? 

adverb  of  degree 

greatly 

Answers  the  question 
How  much? 

adverb  of  degree 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS  231 

2.  Some  other  uses  of  the  adverb. 

1.  The  adverbs  when,  where,  why,  how,  etc.,  when  used 
in  asking  questions  are  called  mterrogative  adverbs. 

2.  Adverbs  used  to  introduce  clauses  are  called  con- 
junctive adverbs. 

I  saw  him  when  he  came. 

3.  There  followed  by  the  verb  to  he  denoting  existence 
is  called  an  expletive;  as,  There  were  two  corbies  sat 
on  a  tree. 

4.  There  are  many  idiomatic  adverbial  expressions 
which  cannot  be  easily  separated  into  parts,  and  may  be 
called  phrase  adverbs;  as,  as  yet,  at  last,  at  length,  by 
all  means,  in  vain,  of  course,  one  by  one. 

5.  A  modal  adverb  is  one  used  in  making  positive,  or 
negative,  or  doubtful  statements;  as,  not,  certainly, 
probably,  indeed,  etc. 

6.  Yes,  yea,  no,  and  nay  may  be  called  responsives. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Prepositions  are  not  divided  into  classes.  As  with 
the  adverb,  however,  there  are  certain  idiomatic  expres- 
sions which  cannot  well  be  separated  and  may  be  called 
phrase  prepositions;  as,  according  to;  instead  of;  by 
means  of.    Prepositions  require  an  object. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  classified  according  to  their  use 
into  co-ordinate  and  subordinate  conjtmctions. 

1.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  of  equal  rank;  as, — 


232  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Boys  and  girU  were  in  the  party. 

The  hoys  and  their  mother  have  gone  to  Boston,  but  they  do  not  intend 
to  stay  long, 

2.  Subordinate  conjunctions  introduce  subordinate 
clauses  and  connect  them  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

I  knew  that  he  was  wrong. 

He  went  because  he  was  needed. 

3.  Some  conjunctions,  used  in  pairs,  are  called  cor- 
relatives; as,  neither y  nor;  either ^  or;  both,  and;  whether, 
or. 

Inflection  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

1.  Inflection  is  the  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  to 
indicate  some  change  in  its  meaniug. 

2.  Five  parts  of  speech  are  inflected, — nounSj  pronouns, 
adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs.  * 

The  inflection  of  nouns  and  pronouns  is  called  declen- 
sion; of  verbs,  conjugation;  of  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
comparison. 

NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Nouns  and  pronouns  are  inflected  to  denote  person, 
number,  gender,  and  case. 

2.  Person  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
to  denote  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  and  the  person 
spoken  of.  There  are  three  persons, — the  first  person, 
or  speaker;  the  second  person,  or  the  person  spoken  to; 
the  third  person,  or  the  person  spoken  of. 

And  /  John  saw  these  things  and  heard  them.    (First  person.) 
Mary,  will  you  come  here?     (Second  person.) 
Frank  asked  him  to  come.    (Third  person.) 


INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS       233 

3.  Number  is  a  difference  in  the  form  of  nouns  and 
pronouns  to  distinguish  one  object  from  more  than  one. 
There  are  two  numbers, — the  singular  number  denoting 
one,  the  plural  number  denoting  more  than  one.. 

The  boy  and  the  man  knew  me.    (Singular.) 
The  hoys  and  the  men  knew  vs.     (Plural.) 

4.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
to  denote  sex.  There  are  four  genders, — masculine 
denoting  a  male,  feminine  denoting  a  female,  neuter 
denoting  neither  male  nor  female,  and  common  denoting 
either  male  or  female. 

A  boy  saw  him  fall.     (Masculine.) 
A  girl  picked  her  up.     (Feminine.) 
The  servant  saw  them  fall.     (Common.) 
The  tree  hides  it  from  the  road.    (Neuter.) 

A  pronoun  must  agree  in  person,  number,  and  gender 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  for  which  it  stands,  called  its 
antecedent. 

5.  Case  is  the  form  of  nouns  and  pronouns  that  shows 
the  relation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  There  are 
three  cases,  as  follows: — 

(1)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb 
is  in  the  nominative  case. 

(2)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  denote  possession  is  in 
the  possessive  case. 

(3)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or 
of  a  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Mary  and  /  went  to  Boston.     (Nominative.) 

Is  that  Mary's  book?    No,  it  is  my  book.    (Possessive.) 

J  saw  him  take  the  book  in  his  fiand,    (Objective.) 


234 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


6.  Nouns  have  only  one  inflection  to  show  case, — 
the  possessive,  which  is  formed  by  adding  apostrophe  and 
5  i's)  to  the  nominative  form  in  the  singular  number,  and 
usually  the  apostrophe  (')  simply  in  the  plural. 

7.  Pronouns  usually  show  their  case  by  inflection. 

8.  To  give  all  the  singular  and  plural  case-forms  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  is  to  decline  it. 


NOUNS. 

> 

Singular. 

Norn. 

girl 

baby 

child 

Charles 

Poss. 

girl's 

baby's 

child' 

s              Charles' 

Obj, 

girl 

baby 
Plural. 

child 

Charles 

Nom, 

girls 

babies 

children 

Poss. 

gu-ls' 

babies' 

children's 

Obj. 

girls 

babies 

children 

PRONOUNS 

i. 

Singular. 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Mas. 

Third  Person. 
Fem.         Neut. 

Nom. 

I 

(thou) 

he 

she          it 

Poss. 

my  or  mine 

(thy  or  thine)  his 

her  "1      its 
.  hers  / 

Obj. 

me 

(thee) 
Plural. 

him 

her          it 

Nom. 

we 

you  (ye) 

they 

Poss. 

our  or  ours 

your  or  yours 

their  or  theirs 

Obj. 

us 

you 

them 

Singuli 

ar  or  plural  in 

meaning. 

Nom, 

who 

whoever 

which 

Poss, 

whose 

whosever 

(whose) 

Obj. 

whom 

whomever 

which 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  235 

VERBS. 

1.  Verbs  are  inflected  to  indicate  voice)  mood,  tense, 
person  and  number. 

2.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  various  inflections.  The  conjugation  of  a 
verb  is  effected  (1)  by  a  change  in  its  form  or  (2)  by  the 
use  of  auxiliaries. 

Buy,  bought.     (Change  in  form.) 

Will  have  bought,  have  been  bought.    (Auxiliaries.) 

When  a  verb  consists  of  more  than  one  word  the  form 
is  sometimes  called  a  verb  phrase;  as,  You  should  have 
gone. 

1.  Voice  is  that  form  of  a  transitive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  acts,  or  is  acted  upon. 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting. 
The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted  upon. 

The  passive  voice  is  expressed  by  means  of  the  auxil- 
iary be  (in  its  various  forms)  combined  with  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb;  as.  The  errand  boy  brought  the 
package.  (Active.)  The  package  was  brought  by  the 
errand  boy.      (Passive.) 

Intransitive  verbs  have  no  passive  voice,  but  they  are 
sometimes  passive  in  form;  as.  My  father  is  gone  and  I  am 
grieved  at  heart. 

2.  The  mode  or  mood  of  a  verb  is  the  manner  in  which 
it  expresses  action.  The  indicative  mode  simply  indi- 
cates or  declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question. 

He  runs  fast. 
May  I  go  now? 


236  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

The  subjunctive  mode  expresses  (1)  an  uncertainty, 
(2)  a  condition  contrary  to  fact,  (3)  a  wish. 

1.  Though  all  else  fail,  he  will  stand  by  me. 

2.  If  I  were  you  I  would  not  do  it. 

3.  Would  I  were  a  bird. 

4.  I  wish  I  were  with  you. 

Subjunctives  are  generally  found  in  subordinate 
clauses  introduced  by  if,  though,  although,  except,  lest, 
etc.  Not  all  clauses  thus  introduced,  however,  con- 
tain subjunctives. 

The  imperative  mode  expresses  a  command  or  entreaty. 

Go  at  once.    Please  do  as  I  ask. 

3.  Tense  is  the  distinction  which  verbs  have  to  indi- 
cate present,  past,  or  future  time. 

(1)  The  present  tense  refers  to  present  time,  (2)  the 
past  tense  or  preterite  to  past  time,  and  (3)  the  future 
tense  to  future  time. 

(1)  He  sees  it.    (2)  He  saw  it.    (3)  He  wiU  see  it. 

The  above  are  the  simple  tenses. 

There  are  besides,  three  complete  tenses  formed  by 
prefixing  some  form  of  the  auxiliary  have  to  the  past 
participle.  The  complete  tenses  are:  (1)  The  present 
perfect  tense,  which  represents  an  action  as  completed 
at  the  present  time.  It  is  formed  by  using  have,  hast, 
or  has  with  the  past  participle.  (2)  The  past  perfect 
tense,  which  represents  the  action  as  complete  at  some 
point  in  past  time.  It  is  formed  by  using  had  with  the 
past  participle.  (3)  The  future  perfect  tense,  which 
represents  that  the  action  will  be  completed  at  some 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  237 

future  time.     It  is  formed  by  using  will  have  or  shall 
have  with  the  past  participle. 

(1)  He  has  seen  the  comet.  (2)  He  had  seen  the  comet.  (3)  He 
wUl  have  seen  the  comet. 

4.  Potential  forms  of  the  verb  are  made  by  using  the 
auxiliaries  may,  can,  must,  might,  or  could  with  the  root 
infinitive.  May  and  might  express  possibility,  can  and 
could  express  ability,  and  must  expresses  obligation  or 
necessity. 

I  may  go  tomorrow. 

They  can  do  it  because  they  think  they  can. 

I  must  see  what  they  are  doing. 

May,  can,  and  must  generally  give  a  present  meaning; 
might  and  could,  a  past  meaning. 

6 .  Emphatic  forms  of  the  verb  are  made  by  using  the 
auxiliaries  do  and  did  with  the  root  infinitive. 

I  do  assist  in  the  work.    (Present.) 
I  did  assist  in  the  work.   (Past.) 

Do  and  did  are  often  used  in  asking  questions  or  deny- 
ing statements,  and  are  then  called  interrogative,  or 
negative  forms;  as,  Do  you  go  tomorrow?  I  do  not  go 
tomorrow. 

6.  Progressive  forms  of  the  verb  are  made  by  using 
the  auxiliary  be,  in  its  various  forms,  with  the  present 
participle.  The  progressive  form  represents  an  action  as 
unfinished;  as,  He  is  gftvm^  his  attention  to  electricity.  I 
am  trying  to  do  right. 


238  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

7.  Passive  forms  of  the  verb  are  made  by  using 
the  auxiliary  be  in  its  various  forms  with  the  past  par- 
ticiple . 

The  sun  is  sety  the  battle  is  lost. 

8.  Person  and  number.  The  only  change  in  the  form 
of  a  verb  of  indicate  person  and  number  occurs  in  the 
present  tense  of  the  indicative  mode,  where  the  third, 
singular  ends  in  s.  This  is  called  the  third-singular  or 
S'form. 

Note:    Was  may  be  used  with  /  or  with  a  third-singular  subject. 


INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

1.  Infinitives  and  participles,  like  verbs,  have  simple 
forms  and  inflected  forms. 

1.  Infinitives   have   a  present  tense   and  a  perfect 
tense,  as  in  the  following  illustrations: — 

Perfect-  /  "^^  have  called. 
I  Having  called. 

2.  Participles  have  a  present  tense,  a  past  tense,  and 
a  perfect  tense,  as  in  the  following  illustrations: — 

Present:      Calling. 
Past:  Called. 

Perfect:      Having  called. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 


239 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  BE 

Principal  Parts:    Be^  Was,  Been, 

Indicative  Mode 

Present  Tense 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 


Sinfrular 
I  am 

You  are  (thou  art) 
He  is 

Past  Tense 
I  was 

You  were  (thou  wert) 
He  was 


Plural 
We  are 
You  (ye)  are 
They  are 


We  were 
You  were 
They  were 


Future  Tense 
I  shall  be  We  shall  be 

You  will  be  (thou  wilt  be)  You  will  be 
He  will  be  They  will  be 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
I  have  been  We  have  been 

You  have  been  You  have  been 

(thou  hast  been) 
He  has  been  They  have  been 

Past  Perfect  Tense 
I  had  been 
You  had  been 

(thou  hadst  been) 
He  had  been 


We  had  been 
You  had  been 

They  had  been 


Future  Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  been  We  shall  have  been 

You  will  have  been  You  will  have  been 

(thou  wilt  have  been) 
He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  been 


240 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Tense 
Singular 
If  I  be 

If  you  be  (thou  be) 
If  he  be 

Past  Tense 
If  I  were 

If  you  were  (thou  were) 
If  he  were 


Plural 
If  we  be 
If  you  be 
If  they  be 


If  we  were 
If  you  were 
If  they  were 


Imperative  Mode 

Singuiaf  Plural 

Be  you  (thou)  Be  you  (or  ye) 


Present: 


INFINITIVES. 

rTobe 
\  Being 

p   J,  , .  /  To  have  been 
\  Having  been 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present:  Being 
Past:       Been 
Perfect:    Having  Been 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  HAVE 
Principal  Parts:     Have,  Had,  Had. 
Indicative  Mode 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 
Third  Person, 


Present  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  have  We  have 

You  have  (thou  hast)  You  have 

He  has  They  have 

Past  Tense 

I  had  We  had 

You  had  (thou  hadst)  You  had 

He  had  They  had 


INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


241 


First  PersoTif 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 

First  Person, 
Second  Person, 

Third  Person, 


First  Person, 
Second  Person, 


Future  Tense 
I  shall  have  We  shall  have 

You  will  have  You  will  have 

(thou  wilt  have) 
He  will  have  They  will  have 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
I  have  had  We  have  had 

You  have  had  You  have  had 

(thou  hast  had) 
He  has  had  They  have  had 

Past  Perfect  Tense 
I  had  had  We  had  had 

You  had  had  You  had  had 

(thou  hadst  had) 
He  had  had  They  had  had 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
1  shall  have  had  We  shall  have  had 

You  will  have  had  You  will  have  had 

(thou  wilt  have  had) 


Third  Person,       He  will  have  had 
INFINITIVES. 

D        ,     /To  have 
Present:  {  „     . 

I  Having 

/To  have  had 


Perfect: 


They  will  have  had 
PARTICIPLES. 
Present:  Having 
Past:       Had 
Perfect:    Having  had 


\  Having  had 


ADJECTIVES   AND   ADVERBS. 
I.    Adjectives. 

1.  The  inflection  of  adjectives  is  called  comparison. 
Comparison  is  the  change  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  to 
denote  degree. 

2.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison, — the  posi- 
tive, the  comparative,  the  superlative. 


242 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


(1)  The  positive  degree  is  the  simple  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive and  simply  denotes  a  quality. 

(2)  The  comparative  degree  is  regularly  made  by 
adding  er  to  the  positive  and  denotes  a  higher  degree  of 
the  quality. 

(3)  The  superlative  degree  is  regularly  made  by 
adding  est  to  the  positive  and  denotes  the  highest  degree 
of  the  quality. 

Positive,  glad;  comparative,  gladder;  superlative,  gladdest, 

3.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  and  a  few  of  more  than 
one,  like  happy,  hearty,  etc.,  regularly  form  their  compar- 
ison by  er  and  est, 

4.  Some  adjectives  are  irregularly  compared;  as  fol- 
lows:— 


Positive. 
bad  1 
evil  \ 
ill  J 
far 

good  \ 
well    / 

fore 

late 

little 
many  "^ 
much   / 

near 
old 


Comparative. 

Superlative, 

worse 

worst 

farther 

farthest 

better 

best 

former 

f  foremost 
I  first 

f later 
\  latter 

/latest 
Uast 

less 

least 

more 

most 

nearer 

^ '  nearest 
.next 

folder 
I  elder 

/oldest 
1  eldest 

INFLECTION  OF  ADVERBS  243 

5.  Many  adjectives  when  compared  by  means  of  er 
or  e%i  would  sound  awkward.  Hence  we  compare  them 
by  means  of  the  words  more  or  mo%t,  less  or  least;  as, 
fashionablef  more  fashionable,  most  fashionable;  fashion- 
able, less  fashionable,  least  fashionable. 

6.  Some  adjectives  cannot  be  compared;  for  example, 
chief,  square,  unique,  principal. 

7.  Two  adjectives,  this  and  that,  are  inflected  for 
number,  the  plurals  being  these  and  those, 

n.    Adverbs. 

1.  Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  have  their  degrees  of 
comparison, — ^positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

2.  A  few  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  er  and 
est;  as,  cheap,  hard,  high,  slow,  soon. 

3.  Most  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  the  words 
more  and  most,  less  or  least;  as,  sadly,  more  sadly,  most 
sadly;  highly,  less  highly,  least  highly. 

4.  Some  adverbs  are  irregularly  compared;  as  follows: — 


badly     \ 
ill(evU)/ 

worse 

worst 

far      1 
forth  / 

f  farther 
I  further 

f  farthest 
I  furthest 

late 

later 

/  latest 
tlast 

little 
much 

less 
more 

least 
most 

nigh 

Higher 

fnighest 
I  next 

weU 

•better 

beet 

18 

244  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Syntax  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Each  word  in  a  sentence  has  its  own  use  or  relation 
to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  This  use  or  relation 
to  other  words  in  the  sentence  is  called  its  syntax  or 
construction. 

NOUNS. 

A  noun  may  be  used  in  the  following  relations: — 

1.  As  the  Subject  of  a  verb. 

Birds  sing.    Do  crows  singf 

2.  As  the  Subjective  Complement  of  a  copulative 
verb  (or  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice). 

Cats  are  lazy  animals. 

David  was  appointed  captain  of  the  team  by  the  class. 

3.  As  the  Object  of  a  transitive  verb  (or  participle  or 
infinitive). 

The  ambassadors  greeted  the  king. 

Having  greeted  the  king,  the  ambassadors  retired. 

4.  As  the  Object  of  a  preposition. 
The  books  lie  on  the  table. 

5.  As  an  Appositive  explaining  the  noun  (or  pronoun). 
David,  the  captain  of  the  team,  was  the  hero  of  the  hour. 

6.  As  a  Possessive  modifjdng  the  noun. 

The  fishermen's  huts  are  along  the  cove,  by  Lane's  wharf. 

7.  As  the  Indirect  Object  of  some  transitive  verbs. 
The  school  gave  David  the  trophy. 


SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS  245 

8.  As  the  Objective  Complement  of  some  transitive 
verbs. 

They  made  David  captain  of  the  team. 

9.  Independently  either  in  exclamation  or  by  direct 
address. 

1.  The  poor  people  I    How  I  pity  them  this  cold  winter! 

2.  God  of  the  nations,  be  with  us  yet. 

10.  Absolutely  with  a  participle  to  express  the  cause, 
time,  or  circumstance  of  an  action. 

The  game  having  been  won,  the  team  marched  home  triumphantly. 

11.  Adverbially  to  denote  measure  (time,  place,  or 
manner). 

The  driveway  was  a  mile  long. 
The  cold  spell  lasted  three  days. 
Where  shall  you  be  a  week  from  to-dayt 

12.  As  an  Adjective. 

The  team  play  was  the  best  part  of  the  game. 
They  will  spend  the  week  end  with  us. 

13.  As  the  Subject  of  the  infinitive. 
I  wish  the  captain  of  the  team  to  he  dismissed, 

PRONOUNS. 

1.  Pronouns  have  the  same  cases  as  nouns. 

2.  The  case  of  a  relative  pronoun  has  nothing  to  do 
with  its  antecedent.  The  case  is  determined  wholly 
by  the  used  of  the  pronoun  in  the  clause  of  which  it 
forms  a  part. 


246  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

3.  A  relative  pronoun  is  used  not  only  to  refer  back  to 
its  antecedent,  but  also  to  connect  with  it  the  subordi- 
nate clause  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 

The  boy  who  toins  the  game  is  always  the  hero.  {Who  is  used  as 
the  subject  of  the  clause  and  to  connect  the  clause  with  boy.) 

ADJECTIVES. 

An  adjective  may  be  used  as 

1.  The  Modifier  of  a  noun  (or  pronoun). 

A  tremendous  cataract  fell  over  the  cliff. 

2.  As  a  Predicate  Adjective  after  a  copulative  verb, 

modifying  the  subject. 

The  captain  of  the  team  was  exceedingly  popular. 

3.  As  the  Objective  Complement  of  a  transitive  verb* 
modifying  the  object. 

His  success  made  him  exceedingly  popular. 
Their  team  play  made  the  trainer  proud. 

VERBS. 

1.  With  third-singular  subjects,  in  the  present,  in- 
dicative, the  s-form  is  used. 

Time  flies. 

The  canoe  glides  smoothly  over  the  water. 

The  chimney  on  one  of  those  houses  looks  crooked. 

2.  Infinitives  have  the  same  uses  as  nouns. 

Seeing  is  believing.  (Seeing  is  the  subject  of  is.  Believing  com- 
pletes the  copulative  verb  is  and  is  therefore  the  subjective  com- 
plement). 

I  want  to  do  right.    {To  do  is  the  object  of  want.) 


SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS  247 

3.  Participles  have  the  same  uses  as  adjectives. 

The  team  winniiig  the  most  points  gained  the  coveted  honor. 
The  trainer  kept  the  boys  running  for  practice.     (Objective  com- 
plement.) 
The  dog,  bought  for  almost  nothing,  proved  a  valuable  friend. 

Participles  may  be  used  absolutely  with  the  noun  (or 
pronoun) . 

The  pennant  having  been  won,  the  boys  were  satisfied. 

ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs. 

The  boy  ran  swiftly  (modifies  the  verb  ran)  and  though  reaching 
the  goal  in  an  incredibly  (modifies  the  adjective  short)  short  time, 
he  received  his  honors  very  (modifies  the  adverb  modestly)  modestly. 

2.  A  conjunctive  adverb  not  only  answers  the  ques- 
tion, when?  where?  why?  but  also  connects  the  clause  of 
which  it  forms  a  part  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Please  bring  the  ball  when  you  come. 
It  is  a  mystery  why  he  should  do  so. 

3.  Modal  adverbs  modify  the  whole  clause  or  sentence. 
Yes,  indeed,  I  will  go  with  you. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation  between 
its  object  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

2.  The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, an  infinitive,  a  phrase,  a  clause.  In  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  objects  are  in  heavy  italics: — 


248  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

I  went  to  Boston  directly  from  him  urith  the  hope  of  getting  the 
job.  He  did  nothing  except  to  ask  me  questions  and  to  glare  at  me 
from  across  the  desk.  I  only  nodded,  however,  at  what  he  chose  to 
ask  me. 

3.  Prepositional  phrases  may  be  used  as  adjectives, 
as  adverbs,  as  nouns. 

A  day  in  June.     (Adjective  phrase.) 

I  shall  go  in  the  morning.    {Adverbial  phrase.) 

The  players  came  from  out  of  the  city.      (Noun  phrase.) 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Co-ordinate    conjunctions    are    used   to    connect 
co-ordinate  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

The  two  team^  and  (joins  words)  their  captains  were  well  matched 
in  spirit  and  (joins  phrases)  in  practice,  but  (joins  co-ordinate 
clauses)  of  course  the  heavier  team  won  the  game. 

2.  Subordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect 
adverb  or  noun  clauses  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

I  saw  that  he  did  not  want  to  go  (noun  clause)  and  since  it  was  not 
important  (adverb  clause)  I  let  him  off. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

An  interjection  has  no  grammatical  relation  with  other 
words  in  the  sentence. 

How  to  Parse  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Parsing  consists  in  naming  the  parts  of  speech,  and 
giving  their  inflections  and  constructions. 


HOW  TO  PARSE 


249 


Nouns 


Verbs 


Infinitives. 
Participles 

Adverbs . . 


Pronouns   . . 


Adjectives  . . 


Prepositions. 
Conjunctions 


Class  C  Person 

Inflection     \  Number 
Syntax         I  Gender 
or  Construction 

Class  f  Person 

Inflection    ]  Number 

Antecedent  I  Gender 

if  there  is  one 

I  Syntax  or  Construction 

(Class 
Inflection — Comparison 
Syntax  or  Construction 

Class 
Principal  Parts 

Voice 

Form 

Inflection    .  Mode 

Tense 

Person 

I.  Number 

,  Syntax  or  Construction 

f  Forms 
'  \  Syntax  or  Construction 

f  Forms 

*  \  Syntax  or  Construction 

{Class 
Inflection — Comparison 
Sjmtax  or  Construction 

(Give  the  object 
Construction  of  the  phrase 
introduced 

f  Class 

*  \  What  they  connect 


250  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Analysis  of  Sentences, 

Analysis  consists  in  resolving  a  sentence  into  its 
elements,  and  pointing  out  the  offices  and  relations  of 
each. 

To  analyze  we  tell  in  the  following  order, — 

1.  The  kind  of  sentence. 

2.  The  kind  of  clauses  of  which  it  consists. 

3.  The  principal  clause  or  clauses. 

a.  The  subject  and  its  modifiers. 

b.  The  verb  and  its  modifiers, 

c.  The  complement  and  its  modifies, 

4.  The  subordinate  clause  or  clauses. 

a.  The  subject  and  its  modifiers. 

b.  The  verb  and  its  modifiers. 

c.  The  complement  and  its  modifies. 
6.  The  connectives. 

6.  The  independent  expressions. 


APPENDIX  B 

I.  RULES  FOR  PUNCTUATION 

I.    The  Comma. 

1.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  arranged  in  a  series,  when  these  are  not  con- 
nected by  andf  or^  or  nor.  When  a  conjunction  is  used 
between  the  last  two  members  of  the  series  only,  the 
comma  should  be  used  before  the  conjunction. 

It  was  a  fine,  green,  fat  landscape. 

It  has  enervated  their  strength,  multiplied  their  diseases,  and 
superinduced  upon  their  original  barbarity  the  low  vices  of  artificial 
life. 

2.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  all  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  used  in  apposi- 
tion. 

It  was  Frank  Bracebridge,  a  sprightly  good-humored  young  fellow, 
with  whom  I  had  once  travelled  on  the  continent. 

3.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  words  in  direct 
address  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Seyton,  send  out.  Doctor,  the  thanes  fly  from  me.  Come,  sir, 
dispatch. 

4.  The  comma  is  used  to  distinguish  an  explanatory 
relative  clause  from  a  restrictive  relative  clause. 

1.  First-year  pupils,  who  are  not  allowed  to  attend  rhetorical 
exercises  in  the  hall,  have  instead  exercises  in  their  own  rooms. 
(Explanatory.) 

261 


252  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

2.  First-year  pupils  who  are  deficient  in  their  work  must  report 
at  once  to  the  Principal.    (Restrictive.) 

5.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound Sentence  when  there  is  a  slight  break  in  the 
thought. 

1.  The  game  was  brief,  but  it  was  interesting. 

2.  Their  wants  were  few,  and  the  means  of  gratification  were 
within  reach. 

6.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  expressions  out  of  their  natural  order. 

1.  In  manners  and  appearance,  he  is  distasteful  to  me. 

2.  If  I  had  had  longer  training,  I  should  write  better  themes. 

3.  Whenever  a  man  makes  a  statement,  he  must  be  sure  of  his 
facts. 

7.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence,  expressions  more  or  less  parenthetical  in 
their  nature. 

1.  He  was  not,  however,  on  the  best  of  terms  with  me. 

2.  A  man  must  be  sure,  whenever  he  makes  a  statement,  that  his 
facts  are  right. 

3.  There  is  a  class  of  people,  alas,  who  need  watching. 

8.  The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  an  ellipsis. 

One  of  us  goes  to  the  grammar  school;  the  other,  to  the  primary 
school. 

9.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  items  of  a  date 
or  address  at  the  head  of  a  letter  or  elsewhere. 

Charles  Dudley  Warner  was  bom  in  Plainfield,  Massachusetts, 
September  12, 1829. 


RULES  FOR  PUNCTUATION  253 

n.  The  Semi-Colon. 

1.  The  semi-colon  is  used  when  there  is  a  strongly 
marked  division  in  the  sentence. 

1.  I  was  dirty  from  my  journey;  my  pockets  were  stuflFed  out  with 
shirts  and  stockings,  and  I  knew  no  soul  nor  where  to  look  for  lodging. 

2.  The  latter  I  gave  the  people  of  the  boat  for  my  passage,  who 
at  first  refused  it,  on  account  of  my  rowing;  but  I  insisted  on  their 
taking  it. 

2.  The  semi-colon  is  used  to  separate  phrases  or 
clauses  in  a  series,  when  the  phrases  or  clauses  contain 
commas. 

The  ships  of  war,  that  prowled  like  guardian  giants  along  the  coast; 
the  headlands  of  Ireland,  stretching  out  into  the  channel;  the  Welsh 
mountains,  towering  into  the  clouds;  all  were  objects  of  intense 
interest. 

3.  The  semi-colon  is  used  to  precede  ^'e.  g.'*  (exempli 
gratia  =  ioT  example),  *'viz."  (videlicet ^nsunely),  "i.  e.'* 
(id est  =  th&tis)f  "as",  and  "p."  (page). 

1.  A  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviation;  as,  "Dr."» 
"Mr.",  "B.  C",  "viz." 

2.  Tenement,  a  piece  of  property;  p.  230, 1.  6. 

3.  There  are  three  end-marks  for  sentences;  viz.,  the  period, 
the  interrogation  point,  the  exclamation  point. 

in.    The  Colon. 

1.  The  colon  is  used  before  a  long  or  formal  quotation 
and  before  a  list  or  statement. 

His  master  says  further  as  follows:  "I  think  I  can't  charge  my 
conscience  with  being  much  short  of  my  duty  to  him.    I  shall  now 


254  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

desire  you,  if  you  have  not  done  it  already,  to  invite  him  to  lay  his 
complaints  before  you,  that  I  may  know  how  to  remedy  them." 
— Benjamin  Franklin:    Autobiography. 

2.  There  are  four  gospels:  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John. 

3.  A  good  motto  is:  Follow  the  leading  of  your  own  conscience. 

IV.  The  Period.    The  Interrogation  Point.    The  Excla- 
mation Point. 

1.  The  period  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  declarative 
and  imperative  sentence. 

The  period  is  used  to  mark  abbreviations. 

2.  The  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  end  of  an 
interrogative  sentence  and  after  a  direct  question  in  the 
middle  of  any  sentence. 

"Are  you  going  so  soon?"  asked  Mary. 

3.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  words  or  sen- 
tences uttered  with  strong  feeling. 

Mary!  Maryl   What  are  you  doing! 
Alas!  What  shall  I  do! 
Oh!  you  hurt. 

After  the  word  0  used  in  direct  address,  no  punctua- 
tion is  needed. 

"O  Thou  that  changest  not,  abide  with  me." 

V.  The  Dash. 

1.  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  a  break  or  excited  pause 
in  a  sentence. 

*T  could  be  happy  with  her,"  cried  he,  convulsively,  "in  a  hovel! — 
I  oould  go  down  with  her  into  poverty  and  the  dust! — I  could — I 


RULES  FOR  PUNCTUATION  256 

could— God  bless  her! — God  bless  her!"  cried  he,  bursting  into  a 
transport  of  grief  and  tenderness. — Irving:    The  Sketch-Book, 

VI.    The  Hyphen. 

The  hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word,  and  to  mark  a  break  in  a  word  of  more  than  one 
syllable  when  the  whole  of  the  word  can  not  be  got  in 
at  the  end  of  the  line. 

Monosyllables  may  not  he  divided, 

Vn.    The  Parentheses. 

The  parentheses  are  used  to  inclose  figures,  words 
of  explanation,  or  words  thrown  in  that  might  be  omitted 
without  disturbing  the  sentence.  They  are  little  used 
by  good  writers. 

Vm.    Quotation  Marks. 

1.  Quotation  marks  ("  ")  are  used  to  enclose  direct 
quotations. 

1.  Here  a  general  shout  burst  from  the  bystanders — "A  toryl  a 
tory  I  a  spy  I  a  refugee!  hustle  him!  away  with  him!" 

2.  Shakspere  says,  "All  the  world's  a  stage". 

Note  1.  Single  marks  (*  0  should  be  used  to  enclose 
a  quotation  within  a  quotation. 

"Methought  I  heard  a  voice  cry  *Sleep  no  morel  Macbeth  does 
murder  sleep'. " 

Note  2.  Sometimes  a  quotation  is  interrupted  for  the 
sake  of  explanations.  The  parts  of  the  quotation  thus 
interrupted  should  be  noted  by  quotation  marks. 

1.  "And  what  is  so  rare,"  says  Lowell,  "as  a  day  in  June." 

2.  "My  very  dog,"  sighed  poor  Rip,  "has  forgotten  mel" 


266  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Note  3.  When  titles  of  persons,  books,  and  magazine 
articles  or  the  like  are  quoted,  they  are  sometimes 
enclosed  by  quotation  marks,  especially  in  manuscript. 

"The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow"  is  one  of  the  essays  in  "The 
Sketch-Book",  written  by  Irving,  one  of  whose  pen-names  was 
"Geoffrey  Crayon". 

IX.    The  Apostrophe. 

1.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  possessive 
case.  « 

1.  The  boys  were  hunting  for  squirrels' nests. 

2.  The  boys  were  hunting  for  the  squirrel's  nest. 

Note:  The  pronouns  ours^  herSj  its,  and  theirs  take  no 
apostrophe. 

2.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 
letters  or  figures. 

1.  *Tis  (it  is)  the  last  rose  of  summer. 

2.  Aren't  (are  not)  you  going  to  the  fair  to-morrow? 

3.  I  was  graduated  with  the  class  of  '99  (1899). 

4.  It's  (it  is)  fine  weather  for  sailing. 

3.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  make  plurals  of  letters 
and  figures. 

1.  Mind  your  p's  and  q's. 

2.  Cross  out  all  your  6's. 

II.  RULES  FOR  CAPITALIZATION 

1.  A  capital  should  be  used  for  the  first  letter  of  the 
first  word  of — 

1.  A  sentence. 

2.  A  fine  of  poetry. 

3.  A  direct  quotation. 


RULES  FOR  CAPITALIZATION  2S7 

4.  The  topics  of  an  outline. 

5.  The  title  of  a  book,  a  poem,  an  essay,  a  story,  etc. 

Examples  of  the  above  rules  are  shown  in  bold' 
faced  type  below. 

(Poetry.)    Pack  clouds,  away,  and  welcome  day, 
With  night  we  banish  sorrow. 

(Direct  Quotation.)    It  was  Shakspere  who  said:  "The  qual« 
ity  of  mercy  is  not  strained". 

( Topics.)    The  causes  of  this  fierce  spirit  of  liberty  were, 

1.  Descent. 

2.  Government. 

3.  Religion  in  the  North. 

(Titles.)  The  first  chapter  of  "The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables"  is  entitled,  "The  Old  Pyncheon 
Family". 
Macaulay  wrote  an  essay  called,  "The  Life  and 
Writings  of  Addison",  and  also  some  poems 
called,  "Lays  of  Ancient  Rome". 

2.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  should  be 
written  as  capitals. 

3.  A  capital  should  be  used  for  the  first  letter  of — 

1.  Names  or  titles  of  persons. 

2.  Names  of  localities. 

3.  The  name  of  the  Deity. 

4.  Names  of  sects  and  parties. 

5.  Names  of  historical  events  and  documents. 

6.  Adjectives  when  used  as  names. 

Examples  of  the  above  rules  are  shown  in  bold' 
faced  type  below. 

(Titles.)    The  King  of  England.    Secretary  of  War.    The 
President  of  the  United  States. 


258  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

{N'amea  of  persons,)    Mary.    John.  Smith.     Jones  and  Co, 

(Names  of  localities.)  Essex  Street,  Boston.  Buziard'a 
Bay.  Memmac  River.  The 
West.    The  South. 

{The  Deity.)    The  Almighty.    The  Creator. 

{Sects  and  Parties,)    Protestants.     Catholics.    Methodists. 
Republicans.    Democrats. 

{Historical  Events.)  The  Civil  War.  The  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  The  Declaration  of 
Independence.  The  Monroe  Doc- 
trine. 

{Adjectives  used  as  names.)   The    American    people.       An 

Indian  boy.  A  British  ship. 
A  Latin  lesson.  A  French 
soldier. 

4.  A  capital  should  be  used  as  the  first  letter  of — 

1.  The  days  of  the  week. 

2.  The  months  of  the  year. 

3.  Festivals  and  holidays. 

Thursday.  February.  Easter.  Washington's  Birthday.  Labor 
Day.    Good  Fri  day. 

5.  A  capital  should  usually  be  used  as  the  first  letter 
of  every  word  in  a  title  except  articles,  prepositions,  and 
conjunctions. 

"Squirrels  and  Other  Fur-Bearers",  by  Burroughs. 
"Three  Men  in  a  Boat",  by  Jerome  K.  Jerome. 


APPENDIX  C 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING^ 


1.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  on  adding 
another  syllable;  for  example,  rurij  running;  slip,  slipped. 

Dissyllables,  when  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  follow 
the  same  rule:  for  example,  occur,  occurred;  prefer, 
preferring. 

Note:  A  single  vowel  after  gu  also  doubles  the  final 
consonant,  as  in  equip,  equipped;  equal,  equalling. 

Exercise.  Apply  the  above  rule  to  the  following  words:- 


bar 

recur 

demur 

quiz 

chop 

wrap 

prefer 

begin 

expel 

drop 

shovel 

gossip 

occur 

remit 

profit 

war 

offer 

sham 

skin 

sputter 

acquit 

submit 

squat 

commit 

^In  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  author  intended  to  give  a 
representative  list  of  words  ordinarily  misspelled  in  the  secondary 
school.  Such  a  list,  however,  could  not  fail  to  be  incomplete,  and 
on  her  attention  being  called  to  ^'Daly's  Advanced  Rational  Speller," 
(Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.),  it  seemed  better  to  refer  teachers  to  this 
and  strongly  commend  its  use  with  poor  spellers.  It  is  a  three 
years'  record  of  the  misspelled  words  in  all  subjects  pursued  at  one 
of  the  largest  Washington,  D.  C,  High  Schools.  It  is  an  admirable 
Speller  and  is  used  in  hundreds  of  the  leading  secondary  schools  of 
the  country. 

10  259 


260 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


2,  When  a  word  ends  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  to  i  before  a  suflSx  not  beginning  with  i;  for 
example,  hurry^  hurries;  happy^  happily. 

When  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  no  change  is  made; 
for  example,  gay,  gayer;  pulley,  pulleys. 


Exercise, 
words '. — 

Apply  the   above   rule   to 

the   follow 

Add  er  or  est 

Add  s  or  es 

AddAj 

heavy 

valley        delay 

gloomy 

sorry 

treaty        dry 

merry 

coy 

pony          curry 

lucky 

tidy 

chimney    country 

dry 

jolly 

story         society 

icy 

lively 

worry        alley 
fly             ally 

gay 

3.  To  spell  words  in  ei  and  ie.    Learn  the  rule  as  a 
jingle:— 

Place  i  before  e 

Except  after  c. 

Exceptions  to  this  rule  are 

Seize,  weird,  and  seizure. 

Either,  neither,  leisure. 

And  words  pronounced  like  neighbor. 

Exercise.  Apply    the    above    rule    to    the    following 
words: —  ' 


achieve 
believe 
brief 
ceiling 


deceive 
hygiene 
neigh 
niece 


receive 
relieve 
seizing 
siege 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING 


261 


chief 

deceit 

weigh 

conceit 

pierce 

weirdly 

conceive 

perceive 

wield 

deign 

priest 

besieging 

fierce 

receipt 

reins 

grieve 

reign 

sleigh 

4.  Final  e  with  few  exceptions  is  retained  before  a 
syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant;  for  example,  close, 
closely. 

Exceptions:  Tine -\-\y  =  truly ;  awe+ful  =  at6j/MZ;  due+ 
ly  =  duly;  argue +ment  =  argument. 

Final  e  is  dropped  before  adding  -ing;  for  example, 
hope,  hoping. 

Exceptions:  hoe,  toe,  dye,  shoe,  singe,  tinge.  Die 
becomes  dying. 

Final  e  is  dropped  before  the  suffixes  ahU,  ably,  and 
ous,  except  after  soft  c  and  g;  for  example,  blame,  blamable; 
change,  changeably;  trace,  traceable. 


Exercise  1. 
words: — 


Apply  the  above  rules  to  the  following 


accuse +-ing 
acquire +-ment  or  -ing 
appreciate +-ing 
argue + -ing 
base+-ness  or  -ly 
besiege + -ing 
bicycle +-ing 
criticise  4—ing 
defense + -less 
define + -ing 
determine + -ing 


eye -{--ing 

frame + -ing 

freeze +-ing 

grieve  +-ance  or  -ing 

hinge + -ing 

hoe + -ing 

judge +-ment  or  -ing 

measure  4—ment  or  -ing 

immediate +-ly 

operate  4—ing 

paralyze + -ing 


262 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


discourage +-ment  or  -ing    perceive +-ing 


drape +-ing 

die  4— ing 

dye+-ing 

elope +-ment  or  -ing 

examine  H—ing 

excite +-ment,  or  -ing 


retrieve + -ing 
separate +-ly  or  -ing 
shine + -ing 
singe +-ing 
tie + -ing 
write + -ing 


Exercise  2.  Apply  the  rule  to  the  following  words  by 


adding  able,  ably,  or  ous:- 


advantage 

advise 

believe 

blame 

change 

charge 

conceive 

courage 


define 

love 

manage 

marriage 

measure 

mistake 

notice 

move 


observe 

outrage 

peace 

perceive 

pronounce 

receive 

service 

trace 


5.  Dis  and  mis  are  prefixes  used  us  negatives.  They 
do  not  change  in  spelling  when  prefixed  to  a  word;  for 
example,  disappear  =  dis  (not) -\- appear;  misguide  =  mis 
(wrongly)  +  guide. 

Exercise.  Write  the  following  words  at  dictation: — 


disappearance 

miscall 

disappoint 

mismanage 

disagree 

miscarry 

disapprove 

mistake 

disarrange 

misspell 

disease 

misstep 

dissatisfy 

missent 

dissent 

misplace 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING 


263 


dissipate 

misstate 

dissension 

misspent 

disembark 

misjudge 

6.  Three  do  nots. 

Do  not  drop  final  -I  when  adding  the  suflix  4y, 
Do  not  drop  final  -y  when  adding  the  suffix  -ing. 
Do  not  drop  final  -n  when  adding  the  sufiix  -ness. 

Exercise.  Apply   the   above    rules    to   the   following 
words: — 


Add  Ay 

Add  -ing 

Add -ness 

general 

study 

even 

final 

carry 

sullen 

real 

empty 

open 

occasional 

hurry 

plain 

official 

scurry 

stubborn 

especial 

berry 

keen 

peaceful 

tarry 

drunken 

principal 

whinny 

lean 

natural 

weary 

mean 

gradual 

marry 

thin 

original 

fancy 

rotten 

incidental 

hurry 

forlorn 

7.  Nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  usually  form  the  plural  by 
adding  s  to  the  singular;  for  example,  roof,  roofs;  fife,  fifes. 

The  following  nouns,  however,  form  the  plural  by 
changing  /  for  v  and  adding  es: — 

knife  wharf  elf  self 

life  thief  half  sheaf 

wolf  beef  leaf  shelf 

wife  calf  loaf  staff 


264 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Nouns  ending  in  s,  x,  2;,  sh,  or  ch  (soft)  form  the  plural 
by  adding  es  to  the  singular;  for  example,  box,  boxes; 
topaz  J  topazes;  church  j  churches. 

Nouns  ending  in  0  preceded  by  another  vowel,  form 
their  plural  by  adding  s;  for  example,  cameOy  cameos. 
If  the  0  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the  plural  is  usually 
formed  by  adding  es;  for  example,  echo,  echoes;  potato, 
potatoes.     Chief  exceptions  are  halos,  pianos,  solos,  banjos. 

Some  common  nouns  always  form  their  plurals  with- 
out s.    They  are: — 


Singular.         Plural. 


Singular.         Plural. 


man 

men 

mouse             mice 

woman 

women 

louse 

Hce 

ox 

oxen 

child 

children 

goose 

geese 

tooth 

teeth 

foot 

Jeet 

dre 

dice 

Exercise.  Apply  the  rules  given  above  to  the  follow 

calico 

grotto 

shelf 

cameo 

halo 

solo 

canto 

hero 

strife 

cargo 

hoax 

suffix 

chintz 

hoof 

thatch 

buffalo 

knife 

tooth 

domino 

leaf 

tomato 

folio 

life 

torpedo 

fox 

loaf 

tornado 

echo 

lurch 

veto 

elf 

march 

vireo 

gas 

match 

volcano 

goose 

mosquito 

wharf 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING 


265 


8.  The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  formed  by  add- 
ing an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s)  to  the  root  form;  for  exam- 
ple, boyy  boy's;  man,  man's. 

The  possessive  plural  is  formed  by  adding  simply  an 
apostrophe  when  the  plural  ends  in  s;  by  adding  an 
apostrophe  and  s  ('«)  when  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s; 
for  example,  boys',  men's. 

Exercise.  Write  the  following  nouns  in  the  possessive 
singular,  and  in  the  possessive  plural: — 


woman 

doctor 

lawyer 

lady 

thief 

baby 

wife 

jockey 

James 

turkey 

pony 

monkey 

wolf 

peasant 

calf 

hero 

shepherd 

mouse 

gentleman 

deer 

tornado 

child 

ox 

Charles 

goose 

Dickens 

lackey 

APPENDIX  D 


I.  EXAMPLES  OF  PUPILS'  THEMES 

L    MODELi 

It  had  a  garret,  very  nearly  such  a  one  as  it  seems  to  me  one  of 
us  has  described  in  one  of  his  books;  but  let  us  look  at  this  one  as  I 
can  reproduce  it  from  memory.  It  has  a  flooring  of  laths  with  ridgea 
of  mortar  squeezed  up  between  them,  which  if  you  tread  on  you  will 
go  to — ^the  Lord  have  mercy  on  you!  where  mil  you  go  to? — the 
same  being  crossed  by  narrow  bridges  of  boards,  on  which  you  may 
put  your  feet,  but  with  fear  and  trembling.  Above  you  and  around 
you  are  beams  and  joists,  on  some  of  which  you  may  see,  when  the 
light  is  let  in,  the  marks  of  the  conchoidal  clippings  of  the  broad- 
axe,  showing  the  rude  way  in  which  the  timber  was  shaped  as  it 
came,  full  of  sap,  from  the  neighboring  forest.  It  is  a  realm  of 
darkness  and  thick  dust,  and  shroud-like  cobwebs  and  dead  things 
they  wrap  in  their  gray  folds.  For  a  garret  is  like  a  sea-shore, 
where  wrecks  are  thrown  up  and  slowly  go  to  pieces.  There  is  the 
cradle  which  the  old  man  you  just  remember  was  rocked  in;  there 
is  the  ruin  of  the  bedstead  he  died  on;  that  ugly  slanting  con- 
trivance used  to  be  put  under  his  pillow  in  the  days  when  his  breath 
came  hard;  there  is  his  old  chair  with  both  arms  gone,  symbol  of 
the  desolate  time  when  he  had  nothing  earthly  left  to  lean  on; 
there  is  the  large  wooden  reel  which  the  blear-eyed  old  deacon  sent 
the  minister's  lady,  who  thanked  him  graciously,  and  twirled  it 
smilingly,  and  in  fitting  season  bowed  it  out  decently  to  the  limbo 
of  troublesome  conveniences.  And  there  are  old  leather  portman- 
teaus, like  stranded  porpoises,  their  mouths  gaping  in  gaunt  hunger 

^Pupils  were  reading  The  Gamhrel-Roofed  Hcmse  in  the  class 
in  literature. 


PUPILS'  THEMES  267 

for  the  food  with  which  they  used  to  be  gorged  to  bulging  repletion; 
and  old  brass  andirons,  waiting  until  time  shall  revenge  them  on 
their  paltry  substitutes,  and  they  shall  have  their  own  again,  and 
bring  with  them  the  fore-stick  and  the  back-log  of  ancient  days; 
and  the  empty  churn,  with  its  idle  dasher,  which  the  Nancys  and 
Phoebes,  who  have  left  their  comfortable  places  to  the  Bridgets 
and  Norahs,  used  to  handle  to  good  purpose;  and  the  brown,  shaky 
old  spinning-wheel,  which  was  running,  it  may  be,  in  the  days 
when  they  were  hanging  the  Salem  witches. — The  Ganibrel-Roofed 
House:  J.G,  Holmes. 

PUPILS'  THEMES. 


A  CORNER  OF  AN  ATTIC. 

In  a  comer  of  my  attic  are  met  together  in  silence  but  in  wild 
confusion,  many  old  articles.  Tattered  coats,  seedy  hats,  and  intox- 
icated looking  boots  are  hung  on  the  rusty  nails  in  the  wall.  An  old 
sinewless  table  and  chairs  with  faded  coverings  and  lacking  legs 
are  leaning  helplessly  against  the  chests  and  boxes  which  chance  to 
be  in  their  way.  On  a  crazy  shelf  many  dog-eared  volumes  are 
scattered  about.  All  are  covered  with  a  thick  blanket  of  gray  dust. 
This  blanket  perhaps  is  the  sheker  for  them,  summer  and  winter. 
From  a  small  window  at  the  farther  end  of  the  attic  a  thin  ray  of 
ghostly  light  settles  on  the  silent  articles,  about  which,  many  light- 
footed  sprites  must  often  scamper. 

2. 

AN  OLD  ATTIC. 

In  the  thin  wavering  light  strained  through  a  dingy,  dusty  window 
conspicuously  decorated  with  cob-webs,  I  discerned,  on  first  entering 
the  room,  a  mere  jumble  of  objects.  But  as  my  eyes  became  accus- 
tomed to  the  light,  objects  seemed  to  be  moving  to  their  places. 
Here  was  an  old  foot  stove  used  long  ago  to  keep  the  feet  warm  in 
church.  Crippled  chairs  leaned  on  one  another  for  support.  On  a 
rusty  nail  himg  a  sword  that  from  disuse  had  rusted  in  its  scabbard* 


268  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

Against  the  wall  was  a  time  worn  trundle  bed  that  had  heard  many 
a  generation  of  children  sung  to  sleep  by  its  mother's  crooning. 
This  spinning  wheel,  hung  with  wreath-like  cobwebs  had  long  sur- 
vived the  hands  that  turned  its  wheel.  Possibly  this  sacque-coat 
and  stove-pipe  hat  were  the  wedding  raiment  of  some  person  long 
since  dead  and  gone.  If  the  people  who  treasured  these  things  so 
should  see  them  now  they  would  not  know  them.  It  seems  almost 
like  seeing  the  dead  again  to  spend  a  few  hours  in  the  old  garret  on  a 
rainy  day. 

3. 
A  CORNER  OF  AN  ATTIC. 

In  a  certain  dark  and  dusty  attic,  repose  articles  which  have 
retired  from  active  service,  and  are  spending  their  last  days  in  peace. 
Under  an  old  bench  is  a  doll's  house  forlorn  and  empty,  while  in  a 
remote  corner  an  old-fashioned  cradle  stands,  used  only  as  a  haunt 
for  the  mice.  Pompous  spiders  spin  their  webs  around  the  windows 
and  coax  their  unsuspecting  victims  into  their  parlors.  Stacks  of 
childish  books  are  scattered  over  the  dusty  floor,  and  hanging  above 
them  on  rusty  nails,  old  carpet  bags,  and  tattered  hats  keep  "watch 
and  ward"^  year  in  and  year  out.  Everything  tends  to  make  the 
attic  a  forlorn,  yet  interesting  place  for  an  explorer  of  old  relics. 

4. 

A  CORNER  IN  THE  CELLAR. 

One  rainy  day  last  week  found  me  with  nothing  to  do,  so  I  thought 
that  I  would  go  down  cellar  and  rummage  around  a  little  bit.  At  the 
first  glance  I  could  not  make  out  anything,  but  as  my  eyes  became 
accustomed  to  the  darkness,  I  saw  a  big  box  looming  up  directly 
in  front  of  me.  Peeping  over  the  edge  was  an  old  bicycle-frame  and 
some  old  wheels,  which,  after  long  years  of  service,  were  now  resting 
in  peace.  Beside  this  box  was  a  decrepit  old  chair,  lacking  a  bottom. 
On  a  shelf  over  this  chair  were  a  number  of  dust-covered  bottles 
which  I  was  going  to  sell  to  the  rag-man,  but  did  not  remember  to. 
Beside  the  bottles  was  a  yellow  box  and  also  a  black  one.    The  yellow 

*An  expression  borrowed  by  many  of  the  pupils  after  reading  one 
Whittier'a  poems. 


of  Whittier'a  poems 


PUPILS'  THEMES  269 

box  contained  old  enap-cracker  fuses  with  which  I  had  set  off  my 
cannon  last  Fourth  of  July.  The  black  one  contained  a  brush  and  a 
little  bottle  full  of  gilt.  In  reaching  up  to  get  these  boxes  I  spilled 
a  paint-pail  full  of  water  down  on  myself,  so  I  hastily  decamped 
and  went  upstairs  to  get  dry. 


A  CORNER  IN  A  CELLAR. 

This  comer  is  filled  with  rubbish,  cobwebs,  and  dust.  As  there 
is  no  attic  in  the  house  in  which  to  stow  things,  this  dark,  mouldy 
comer  is  used  instead .  At  a  first  glance  the  eyes  meet  with  a  j  umbled 
mass  of  odds  and  ends,  but  at  a  nearer  and  more  prolonged  gaze  they 
see  a  trunk,  old  and  forsaken,  against  which  a  chair  with  two  legs 
is  leaning  for  support.  An  old  stove,  that  in  its  youth  has  given 
warmth  and  light  to  the  household  is  standing  way  back  in  the  gloom 
as  though  ashamed  of  itself,  and  is  holding  on  its  head  a  lamp,  or 
what  was  once  a  lamp.  Dust  an  inch  thick  in  some  places  is  lying 
about  on  the  articles.  An  old  table  that  has  done  honor  to  the 
house  in  its  young  days  is  leaning  against  the  wall  for  support,  and 
under  it  repose  the  remnants  of  a  couch  now  broken  and  old.  Car- 
pets and  quilts  are  lying  about  trying  to  cover  the  barrenness  of  an 
old  stove-pipe  that  is  red  with  mst  and  gray  with  dust. 

6. 

A  CORNER  OF  THE  CELLAR. 

In  one  corner  of  our  cellar  is  the  meeting  house  of  all  useless  arti- 
cles. Each  article  cries  out  for  elbow-room.  An  old  skate,  rusty 
with  age,  hangs  on  a  nail  just  like  itself.  The  toe  of  an  old  boot  is 
kicking  its  way  through  wood,  dirt,  and  the  much  needed  coal.  A 
spider's  web  reaches  from  the  old  skate  to  the  boot.  A  broken  chisel 
is  going  to  stab  somebody  if  it  does  not  get  room.  There  is  no  end 
to  broken  jack  knives.  Here  are  the  remains  of  an  express  cart, 
whose  wheels  would  like  to  run  away  if  they  could.  An  old  chair 
leans  forsakenly  against  the  wall.  An  aged  stove  stands  in  the 
middle  of  the  pile  and  looks  upon  himself  as  the  "watch  and  ward" 
society  over  the  weaker  articles. 


270  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

7. 

THE  CORNER  OF  AN  ATTIC. 

The  comer  is  one  in  a  typical  old  farmhouse.  At  first  glance  the 
picture  presented  nothing  of  particular  interest,  and  seemed  but  a 
confused  mass  of  old  rubbish  and  cobwebs.  But  upon  a  second 
observation,  I  discovered  an  antique  chest,  in  which,  undoubtedly, 
reposed  the  finery  of  bygone  days.  Resting  on  a  broken  stand  was  a 
pile  of  papers,  yellow  with  age.  Some  were  bordered  by  heavy  black 
lines  and  contained  accounts  of  President  Lincoln's  assassination 
and  death.  Against  the  wall  leaned  an  old  trimdle  bed,  and  a  powder 
horn  hung  from  a  rusty  nail.  Partly  obscured  by  a  broken  down 
chair,  was  a  spinning  wheel,  its  shuttle  forever  silent,  and  to  replace 
the  golden  flax,  were  but  the  webs  of  the  spiders.  A  small  stove  had 
toppled  over,  and  leaned  against  a  few  old  slats.  Queer  companions 
they,  for  in  their  time  of  usefulness  one  would  have  consumed  the 
other.  Nearly  covering  these  two  objects  was  a  bundle  of  rags. 
A  stove  pipe  hat,  its  lustre  gone,  formed  but  a  banquet  hall  for  the 
spiders.  Some  old,  moth-eaten  garments  hung  on  a  few  hooks. 
Faded  and  dejected,  they  added  to  the  little  comer  of  cast  off  and 
mutilated  objects. 

n.    MODEL.^ 

A  storm  of  summer  has  its  redeeming  sublimities, — its  slow, 
upheaving  mountains  of  cloud  glooming  in  the  western  horizon  like 
new-created  volcanoes,  veined  with  fire,  shattered  by  exploding 
thunders.  Even  the  wild  gales  of  the  equinox  have  their  varieties, — 
sounds  of  wind-shaken  woods  and  waters,  creak  and  clatter  of  sign 
and  casement,  hurricane  puffs,  and  down-mshing  rain-spouts.  But 
this  dull,  dark  autumn  day  of  thaw  and  rain,  when  the  very  clouds 
seem  too  spiritless  and  languid  to  storm  outright  or  take  themselves 
out  of  the  way  of  fair  weather;  wet  beneath  and  above,  reminding 
one  of  that  rayless  atmosphere  of  Dante's  Third  Circle;  no  sounds 
save  the  heavy  plash  of  muddy  feet  on  the  pavements;  the  monot- 
onous, melancholy  drip  from  trees  and  roofs;  the  distressful  gurgling 

*The  pupils  happened  to  be  studjring  Yankee  Gypsies  in  the 
class  in  literature^ 


PUPILS'  THEMES  271 

of  water-ducts,  swallowing  the  dirty  amalgam  of  the  gutters;  a  dim, 
leaden-colored  horizon  of  only  a  few  yards  in  diameter,  shutting 
down  about  one,  beyond  which  nothing  is  visible  save  in  faint  line 
or  dark  projection;  the  ghost  of  a  church  spire  or  the  eidolon  of  a 
chinmey-pot.  He  who  can  extract  pleasureable  emotions  from  the 
alembic  of  such  a  day  has  a  trick  of  alchemy  with  which  I  am  wholly 
unacquainted. — J.  G.  Whittier.    Yankee  Gypsies. 


PUPILS'  THEMES. 


A  DULL  DAY. 

The  kind  of  a  day  Whittier  said  he  did  not  like,  has  arrived. 
Beginning  with  a  fog  in  the  morning,  the  day  continues  to  be  dull 
until  nightfall.  The  air  is  dull  and  heavy.  The  horizon  is  narrow. 
The  clouds  seem  too  spiritless  to  storm  outright  or  to  take  themselves 
away  to  make  room  for  fair  weather.  The  tall,  sentinel  trees  seem 
too  languid  to  move  their  outstretched  arms,  and  while  leafless  they 
seem  to  be  dead.  Even  the  telegraph  wires  seem  spiritless;  rain- 
drops are  seen  moving  along  as  if  they  had  been  forced  by  some 
invisible  power.  The  wind  has  not  been  here  since  the  previous 
evening  and  there  is  no  sound  save  the  heavy  splash  of  muddy  feet 
on  the  slushy  pavements,  raindrops  dripping  from  trees  and  roofs, 
rain  running  down  the  water-spouts,  and  the  soimds  of  dirty  "amal- 
gam" of  the  gutters  running  into  the  sewers.  Beyond  the  horizon 
objects  look  like  ghosts.  It  is  a  day  of  thaw  and  rain,  wet  above 
and  below,  and  an  umbrella  is  almost  useless. 

2. 

AN  OLD  HOUSE  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS. 

On  the  outskirts  of  South  Lawrence  and  near  the  border  of  And- 
over  is  a  small  house.  It  is  an  old,  rough-made,  weather-beaten 
structure,  yet  it  is  not  deserted.  It  is  occupied  by  an  old  lady  and 
gentleman.  When  I  saw  this  house  last,  everything  was  covered 
with  snow.  The  well  in  the  yard  reminded  me  of  Whittier's  "Snow- 
Bound",— 


272  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

"The  well-curb  had  a  Chinese  roof; 
And  even  the  long  sweep  high  aloof, 
In  its  slant  splendor,  seemed  to  tell 
Of  Pisa's  leaning  miracle." 

The  house  seems  as  if  it  were  going  to  fall  in,  but  it  has  held  up 
its  head  wonderfully.  A  tall  chimney  keeps  "watch  and  ward" 
over  all.  Near  by  is  a  small  plot  which  was  once  covered  with  trees, 
but  now  is  covered  with  stumps.  Everything  seems  to  be  going  to 
rack  and  ruin,  but  the  house  still  hangs  together. 

m.    MODEL. 

It  is  in  the  country  that  the  Englishman  gives  Boope  to  his  natural 
feelings.  He  breaks  loose  gladly  from  the  cold  formalities  and  neg- 
ative civilities  of  town;  throws  off  his  habits  of  shy  reserve,  and  be- 
comes joyous  and  free-hearted.  He  manages  to  collect  round  him 
all  the  conveniences  and  elegancies  of  polite  life,  and  to  banish  its 
restraints.  His  country  seat  abounds  with  every  requisite,  either 
for  studious  retirement,  tasteful  gratification,  or  rural  exercise. 
Books,  paintings,  music,  horses,  dogs,  and  sporting  implements  of 
all  kinds,  are  at  hand.  He  puts  no  constraint  either  upon  his  guests 
or  himself,  but  in  the  true  spirit  of  hospitality  provides  the  means 
of  enjoyment,  and  leaves  every  one  to  partake  according  to  his 
inclination. — Irving:  Rural  Ldfe  in  England. 

PUPIL'S  THEME. 
HOW  A  BOY  FEELS  OUT  OF  SCHOOL. 

It  is  out  of  school  that  the  boy  gives  scope  to  his  natural  feelings. 
He  is  not  worrying  about  his  lessons  which  are  to  be  prepared  for 
the  next  day  but  becomes  joyous  and  free-hearted.  He  manages  to 
get  a  rod  and  a  gun  and  spend  the  day  fishing  for  trout  in  the  rapids 
of  some  sequestered  brook  or  shooting  squirrels  in  the  lofty  pine 
trees.  Here  he  is  joyful  and  free  for  there  is  nobody  keeping  a 
stem  watch  over  him  as  the  schoolmaster  did  in  school,  for  he  is 
the  master  of  himseilf  and  may  do  just  as  he  pleases.    He  can  also 


PUPILS*  THEMES  273 

enjoy  the  fresh  air  of  the  country  and  the  songs  of  the  neighboring 
brooks  which  flow  through  the  meadows,  murmuring  and  chattering 
to  themselves.  All  these  things  teach  him  j ust  as  much  as  the  musty 
school.  Out  of  school  he  is  more  himself  and  finds  various  ways  of 
amusing  himself  and  his  companions  in  the  roomy,  outside  world. 

IV.    MODEL. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  TEACHER. 

When  it  is  found  necessary  to  shut  off  steam  from  the  radiators 
in  this  room,  be  sure  to  close  both  valves.  On  no  account  close  one 
valve  and  leave  the  other  open.  Any  violation  of  this  order  will 
be  reported  to  the  school-board. 

PUPILS'  THEMES. 

1. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  THE  TELEPHONE. 

When  the  telephone  bell  rings,  the  teacher  must  take  the  receiver 
from  the  hook,  place  it  at  her  ear,  and  speak  through  the  trans- 
mitter. When  calling  up  the  principal,  the  teacher  must  take  the 
receiver  from  the  hook,  hold  it  to  her  ear,  and  press  the  small  button 
beneath  the  transmitter.  Be  sure  to  take  the  receiver  from  the  hook 
before  pressing  the  button. 

2. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  A  FURNACE-FIRE. 

First  of  all  see  that  your  furnace  is  free  from  ashes.  Next  put 
in  your  paper  and  put  in  enough.  Be  sure  not  to  have  it  too  thick. 
Then  put  in  a  good  deal  of  kindling  wood  and  apply  a  match.  After 
the  kindling  wood  is  all  ablaze,  put  in  some  hard  wood  or  coal. 
If  you  wish  to  burn  hard  wood  in  your  furnace,  you  must  feed  it  with 
hard  wood  as  fast  as  it  is  consumed.  If  you  wish  to  burn  coal,  you 
must  wait  till  the  kindling  is  all  ablaze  and  then  put  in  enough  coal 
to  cover  the  wood.  Be  sure,  in  starting,  that  your  paper  is  not  too 
thick,  otherwise  there  will  not  be  enough  blaze  to  start  the  wood. 


274  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


SETTING  A  WOODCHUCK  TRAP. 
The  first  thing  to  do  in  setting  a  woodchuck  trap  is  to  find  the 
villain's  den.  The  trap  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  steel  connected  by 
a  large  spring  which  runs  between  the  two  pieces.  A  spoon-like 
piece  of  iron  rests  on  the  spring  and  works  the  trap.  The  trap  is 
chained  at  the  woodchuck's  hole  and  barely  covered  with  sand. 
When  the  woodchuck  touches  the  spoon,  the  two  pieces  of  steel 
spring  together  and  hold  him  fast. 

V.    MODEL. 

DEFINITION. 

A  river  is  a  stream  of  water  bearing  the  waste  of  the  land  from 

higher  to  lower  ground,  and  as  a  rule  to  the  sea.    A  trunk  stream 

and  all  the  branches  that  join  it  constitute  a  river  system. — Davis: 

Physical  Geography. 

PUPIL'S  THEME. 
A  GOLF  TEE. 
A  golf  tee  is  a  mound  of  hard  sand  about  seven  feet  long  and  four 
feet  wide,  and  is  used  for  driving  the  golf  ball.  When  the  player  of 
golf  is  ready  to  make  his  first  drive,  he  steps  upon  the  tee  and  makes 
a  very  small  mound  on  which  he  rests  his  ball.  Then  he  firmly 
places  himself  on  the  tee  and  drives,  or  makes  his  first  shot. 

VI. 

EXAMPLES  OF  PUPILS'  LONG  THEMES.* 

1. 

A  NEW  ENGLAND  WINTER. 

If  you  would  view  a  heavy  snowfall,  before  the  laborers 

A  Topical     ^jj^  ^jjgjj.  ploughs  have  cut  it  up  into  paths  and  walks, 

jjjjy  you  should  step  out  of  doors  in  the  early  morning.   At  a 

first  glance  everything  seems  to  have  been  wrapped  up  in 

^This  and  the  following  theme  were  written  after  the  transition 
was  made,  as  in  Lesson  XXVII.  There  were  so  many  good,  "long" 
themes  that  it  was  difficult  to  narrow  down  the  selection  to  two. 
The  first  of  the  two  was  written  by  a  boy,  the  second  by  a  girl. 


I>UPIL'S  THEME 


275 


Typical 

Outdoor 

Pleasure* 


Typical 
Evening 
Pleasures 


a  vast  sheet  of  white.  Even  the  air  is  full  of  scurrying 
snow,  which  strikes  your  face  and  stings  your  ears, 
making  you  wish  for  a  minute  that  you  were  safe  in  by 
the  fire.  Recovering  from  this  feeling  you  begin  to  be 
more  observing  and  you  recognize  familiar  objects  which 
break  up  here  and  there  through  the  snow.  The  air 
is  keen  and  cutting  and  if  you  are  not  well  protected  the 
cold  is  unbearable.  A  few  snowbirds  that  have  defied 
the  cold,  hop  about  looking  for  seeds  and  allow  you  to 
come  very  near.  The  trees  are  covered  with  ermine,  and 
a  few  pickets  from  a  neighboring  fence  stand  up  like 
white-capped  sentinels.  Smoke  is  now  beginning  to 
appear  over  the  city  and  the  snowplough  bells  ring  out 
on  the  still  air.  Breakfast  must  be  nearly  ready  and  the 
cold  air  has  by  no  means  injured  your  appetite. 

On  a  typical  New  England  day,  when  the  sim  shines 
brightly,  when  the  air  is  keen  and  snappy,  and  the  snow 
well  beaten  down,  a  good  observer  may  witness  at  least 
half  a  dozen  different  scenes  of  merriment  within  a  short 
range  of  vision.  On  the  top  of  that  high  hill  a  group 
of  coasters  are  preparing  to  make  their  rapid  descent. 
Farther  down  in  the  valley  a  group  of  younger  boys  are 
gallantly  defending  a  fort  against  the  furious  attack  of 
a  few  sturdy  little  patriots.  Near  by  another  group  are 
throwing  icy  snowballs  at  a  poor  old  snow-man,  who 
with  stove-pipe  hat  and  coal  black  eyes  utters  no  com- 
plaint. The  lake  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  covered  with 
skaters.  Here  is  a  group  of  boys  engaged  in  an  exciting 
game  of  ice  polo  and  although  the  day  is  rather  cold,  the 
perspiration  drops  from  their  faces.  Others  are  out  to 
skate  up  and  down  in  long  graceful  strokes,  while,  in 
contrast,  we  see  on  the  edges  of  the  ice,  still  others  who 
are  making  their  first  attempt.  Farther  up  the  lake 
where  the  crowd  is  not  so  dense,  iceboats  dart  here  and 
there,  like  seagulls  gliding  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 

On  the  other  hand,  scenes  of  gayety,  dances,  and  all 
sorts  of  indoor  sports  and  games  serve  to  make  the  long, 
cold  evenings  very  enjoyable.    Let  us  take  for  instance 


276  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

^n  evening  when  the  wind  is  howling  outside  and  whirling 
Snow  against  the  window  panes  in  sudden  furies.    This 
is  the  kind  of  evening  when  one's  bright  sitting  room 
seems  most  homelike.    The  fire  burns  with  a  bright  glow 
and  around  this  the  family  sits  in  a  large  semicircle 
all  within  range  of  a  large  hanging  lamp.    The  father 
sits  in  his  comfortable  armchair  with  his  feet  resting  on 
a  brightly  colored  hassock,  cheerfully  enjoying  his  pipe 
and  reading  a  Boston  paper.    The  mother  on  the  other 
side  sits  telling  a  story  to  her  youngest  child  and  at  the 
same  time  mending  with  deft  fingers  a  pair  of  stockings. 
Two  of  the  elder  sons  are  enjoying  a  game  of  cards  with 
two  old  friends  whom  they  have  invited  in  to  spend  the 
evening.    Around  the  fireplace  com  is  popping  and  chest- 
nuts and  apples  are  roasting.    These  are  watched  by  a 
bright  eyed  girl  who  seems  to  enjoy  the  care  of  getting 
them  done  to  perfection.    On  a  stool  before  the  desk 
sits  the  studious  member  of  the  family,  softly  singing  to 
herself  while  preparing  her  lesson  for  the  morrow.   Out- 
side, the  wind  howling  dismally  rattles  the  blinds  and 
blows  sudden  gusts  of  snow  in  spiteful  fury  against  the 
window  panes;  but  wrapped  in  the  cheerful  glow  of  the 
hearth  the  family  sit  forgetful  of   the  tempest  raging 
outside  and  laughing  gleefully  at  the  roar  of  the  north 
wind  in  the  chimney. 

2. 
A  NEW  ENGLAND  WINTER. 

A  Typical  ^  ^®^  England  Winter  I  What  charms  lie  in  those 
Winter  three  words.  Picture  to  yourself  a  gray  day.  The  blue 
Day  gky  is  thickly  screened  by  dull,  heavy  clouds.    The  sun, 

so  bright  in  the  morning,  has  "sunk  from  sight  before  it 
set".  The  air  grows  chillier,  and  soon  the  snow-flakes 
begin  to  fall  from  the  leaden  sky.  Faster  and  faster, 
they  come,  until  the  air  seems  swarming  with  them, 
and  still  they  continue  to  fall  silently  to  the  ground. 
Night  advances  and  the  wind  howls  dismally  through  the 
branches  of  the  trees.    Inside,  the  firehght  flickers  from 


PUPIL'S  THEME 


277 


Typical 

Outdoor 

Pleasures 


Typical 
Indoor 
Pleasures 


the  fireplace,  and  sheds  a  ruddy  glow  all  about  the  room. 
Outside,  the  sleet  blows  against  the  window  pane,  and 
the  wind  rattles  the  sashes  as  though  determined  to 
enter.  As  the  snow  drifts  by  the  window,  it  takes  the 
forms  of  "sheeted  spectres  of  the  night".  When  the  next 
morning  comes,  what  a  transformation!  As  you  care- 
fully open  the  door,  you  receive  a  shower  of  wind-driven 
snow.  This  does  not  daunt  you,  and  you  wrap  up  warmly 
and  venture  forth  into  the  wonderland  of  white,  the  scene 
of  a  New  England  snowstorm. 

With  the  first  cold  weather  the  sports  begin.  We  do 
not  wait  for  the  snow.  As  soon  as  the  chilly  nights 
freeze  the  ice  to  a  safe  depth,  skating  begins.  Then, 
what  fun  it  is  to  start  out,  on  a  clear  December 
day,  skates  in  hand.  The  ice  is  thronged  with  merry 
skaters,  and  their  gay  laughter  is  heard,  before  they  are 
seen.  The  eyes  are  sparkling,  and  the  frost  tinges  the 
cheeks  with  pink.  At  last  the  snow  comes,  however, 
and  skating  is  spoiled  at  least  for  a  few  days.  Never- 
theless, a  new  sport  appears  upon  the  field,  namely, 
coasting.  Every  boy  and  girl  near  and  far  owns  a  sled. 
Youngsters  bob  out  unexpectedly,  around  corners,  from 
yards,  and  every  other  place,  running  and  shouting  like 
"mad  Greenlanders".  Double  runners  whiz  by,  loaded 
with  merry  children.  Gongs  ring  and  warn  people  out 
of  danger's  way.  All  is  color  and  animation.  The 
icy  ruts  sparkle,  and  their  cold  brilliance  dazzles  the  eye. 
And  then  what  delight  it  is  to  go,  on  a  clear  moonlight 
night,  snowshoeing.  The  crust  crunches  beneath  your 
feet.  The  moonbeams  play  along  the  cold,  brilliant 
enow.  The  pines  form  dark  mysterious  silhouettes 
against  the  starlit  sky.  These  are  but  few  of  the  health- 
ful outdoor  sports  of  a  New  England  winter. 

The  wind  howls  around  the  house,  the  sleet  drives 
against  the  window  pane  in  showers,  and  the  snow  lies 
deep  and  cold  outside .  Ah !  what  a  typical  day  for  indoor 
pleasure.  You  find  an  interesting  book,  and  with  a 
ruddy-faced  apple,  bury  yourself  in  the  sofa  pillows,  lost 


278  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


Indoor 
Pleasures 


to  all  the  world.  You  live  in  a  sphere  of  your  own, 
Typical  very  different  from  that  which  you  have  left.  What  a 
glorious  time  you  have  in  the  realm  of  that  book.  You 
assume  the  role  of  one  of  the  characters,  the  heroine, 
perhaps,  and  follow  her  through  her  different  emotions. 
At  last,  however,  you  tire  of  reading,  your  eyes  need  rest, 
and  you  wonder  what  next  you  can  do.  Your  gaze 
wanders  around  the  room,  and  rests  with  appreciation  on 
the  blazing  warmth  of  the  fire.  What  will  match  it?  A 
box  of  marshmallows,  lying  on  the  table;  the  very  thing! 
You  get  a  fork  and  toast  them  and  eat  them  as  fast  as 
they  toast.  They  do  not  satisfy  you  and  a  trip  to  the 
pantry  is  the  next  thing.  You  return,  laden  with  corn, 
the  popper,  salt,  and  a  dish.  What  fun  it  is  to  watch 
those  little  kernels  bounce  into  tiny  fairies,  all  in  white. 
Oh!  how  good  the  corn  tastes,  salted  just  to  suit.  It 
appeases  your  appetite,  and  you  forget  that  you  were 
restless.  In  a  short  while,  though,  popping  corn  becomes 
monotonous.  You  have  eaten  too  much,  your  face 
burns  from  the  heat,  and  you  are  rather  drowsy.  You 
fall  to  thinking,  and  your  thoughts  carry  you  far  away. 
The  noise  of  the  sleet  driving  against  the  window  softens 
to  the  gentle  lapping  of  waves  on  a  sandy  beach,  and 
finally  you  drift  off  in  a  tiny  boat,  across  untroubled 
waters  to  the  land  of  Dreams. 


V.     MYTHS  WRITTEN  BY  PUPILS. 

1. 

MAGNIPUER'S  SIN. 

Many,  many  thousand  years  ago  the  people,  who  were  then 
giants,  had  never  known  how  to  smoke.  But  once  there  happened 
to  be  a  boy  who  was  very  much  larger  than  his  fellow  playmates, 
whose  name  was  Magnipuer.  This  boy  was  a  venturesome  sort  of 
a  fellow,  and  was  always  looking  for  some  new  amusement. 

One  day  when  walking  through  the  woods,  he  stopped  and  made 
a  fire  of  some  dry  leaves.    As  he  saw  the  smoke  in  wreaths  float 


PUPILS'  THEMES  279 

silently  through  the  tree  tops,  he  wondered  how  it  would  be  to  blow 
smoke  out  of  his  mouth.  He  got  a  sheet  of  paper  and  wrapped  some 
leaves  up  in  it.  Then  getting  some  fire,  he  set  fire  to  his  torch. 
He  drew  in,  then  blew  out,  and  great  clouds  of  smoke  rolled  upwards 
toward  the  sky.  He  kept  on  repeating  these  strange  actions.  Cloud 
after  cloud  rolled  upward  towards  the  sky.  The  thing  he  was 
smoking  burned  away  towards  his  fingers ;  he  threw  it  away  and  made 
another  one.  He  made  one  after  another  until  he  had  used  up  all 
the  leaves  he  could  find.    When  he  got  tired  of  this  he  went  home. 

Soon  a  great  cry  was  heard  throughout  the  land.  Huge  clouds 
had  massed  together  and  covered  the  sky.  Now  there  was  a  space, 
then  more  clouds  would  sail  by,  some  black  and  some  white.  This 
was  an  awful  happening  because  at  times  the  clouds  would  cover 
the  sky  and  the  sun,  and  it  would  be  very  dark.  When  Magnipuer 
got  home  his  father  asked  him  what  he  had  been  doing.  When  he 
told  his  father,  he  was  very  angry  and  caused  an  earthquake,  but 
they  could  do  nothing. 

All  these  years  the  clouds  have  sailed  around,  and  around  the 
world.  On  summer  days  when  you  see  the  white  clouds,  or  on 
stormy  days  when  the  black  clouds  cover  the  sky,  then  you  can  think 
of  Magnipuer's  sin. 

2. 
THE  RAINBOW. 

Years  and  years  ago  there  lived  a  very  bright  little  maiden, 
and  because  she  was  so  bright  and  pretty,  she  was  called  Sunshine. 
She  had  golden  hair  and  blue  eyes  that  seemed  to  reflect  some  of  the 
sky  in  bright  weather.  Sunshine  did  not  know  what  pouting  meant, 
but  looked  on  the  bright  side  of  all  things.  Her  dress  was  always 
of  the  brightest  colors,  and  she  generally  wore  a  wreath  of  gay- 
colored  flowers  on  her-  hair. 

Often  on  rainy  afternoons  she  would  amuse  the  children  with  her 
lively  and  quaint  ideas,"and  aged  people  brightened  at  the  sight 
of  her.  Somehow  she  always  seemed  brightest  and  gayest  on  a 
rainy  afternoon",  but  perhaps  it  was  only  a  contrast  to  the  outside 
world. 

One  afternoon  she  was  out  in  the  fields  picking  flowers,  when, 
like  a  flash,  she  was  taken  up  to  Heaven  by  the  East  Wind,  and  on 


280  FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 

rainy  afternoons  when  the  sun  comes  out,  you  may  often  see  part 
of  her  bright  gown  in  the  sky,  in  the  shape  of  an  arch.  And  children 
even  now  look  up  at  the  sky,  at  the  end  of  a  shower,  to  see  this  bright 
Rainbow,  and  if  you  were  ever  so  fortunate  as  to  find  the  end  of  the 
Rainbow,  you  would  find  her  beautiful  golden  hair. 

3. 
THE  LILY  AND  THE  ROSE. 

In  the  beautiful  garden  of  the  heavens  where  the  flowers  go  when 
they  leave  the  earth,  dwelt  a  lily  and  a  rose.  Only  the  word  beau- 
tiful can  describe  them,  for  they  excelled  all  the  flowers  of  their 
acquaintance  in  beauty.  The  two  flowers,  sad  to  say,  were  great 
enemies.  The  lily's  beautiful  head,  like  carved  marble,  was  a  great 
contrast  to  the  blushing  rose.  They  dwelt  in  their  cozy  homes 
not  far  from  each  other.  Both  had  many  lovers  and  for  this  the 
two  flowers  were  jealous  of  each  other.  They  had  paid  each  other 
many  insults  and  often  they  sat  thinking  of  some  way  which  would 
cause  the  downfall  of  their  rival. 

One  day  they  were  both  invited  to  a  great  wedding  feast.  Many 
gods  and  goddesses  were  among  the  guests,  but  the  lily  and  the  rose 
were  by  far  the  most  beautiful.  The  lily  walked  with  great  dignity 
and  grace,  followed  by  her  numerous  lovers.  The  rose  blushed, 
giggled,  and  flirted  with  her  admirers,  causing  many  to  laugh  at 
her  jokes.  Suddenly  there  was  a  silence  and  all  eyes  were  turned  to 
the  door.  Stately,  graceful  and  beautiful  came  Juno,  attended  by 
various  gods.  The  lily  and  the  rose  put  on  a  brave  front.  Great 
was  their  wrath  and  each  sneered.  One  of  the  attendants  reported 
this  to  Juno,  and  they  were  brought  before  her.  Both  were  near  the 
verge  of  tears. 

"The  idea!'*  exclfdmed  Juno.  She  was  terribly  angry  on  account 
of  their  beauty.  Turning  to  the  lily  she  said,  "On  earth  and  in 
heaven  your  head  shall  always  droop  with  sorrow".  To  the  rose 
she  said,  "Though  you  shall  still  retain  your  beauty,  your  stems 
shall  be  covered  with  thorns  and  your  leaves  shall  shrink".  Thus 
does  this  story  show  us  that  beauty  though  pleasing,  is  often  f atftl. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  SHORT  THEMES 


281 


n.  SUBJECTS  FOR  SHORT  THEMES. 


A  Straggling  Fence. 

A  Frisky  Young  Colt. 

A  Silly  Young  Calf. 

Our  Family  Horse. 

A  Deserted  House. 

An  Old-Fashioned  Garden. 

A  Tramp. 

A  Drove  of  Cattle. 

A  Flock  of  Geese. 

A  Proud  Rooster. 

A  Group  of  Giggling  Girls. 

Our  Class  Meeting. 

The  Best  Scholar  in  My  Class. 

A  Poplar  Tree. 

The  Whittier  Ehn  (or  any  his- 
toric tree). 

A  Babbling  Brook. 

A  Meadow  Brook. 

The  Old  Farm-Hand. 

A  Bunch  of  Wild  Flowers. 

The  Old  Pine. 

Voices  of  the  Pines. 

A  Newcomer. 

A  Mischievous  Boy. 

A  Bad  Scrape. 

The  Whisperer. 

A  Bed  of  Crocuses. 

A  Good  Romp. 

A  Typical  New  England  Farmer. 

An  Old  Fashioned  Garden. 

A  Ragged  Child. 

A  Tired  Horse. 

An  Old  Well. 

A  Com  Field.  (In  full  ear.) 
(Alter  hjurvest.) 


Eight  O'clock  on  a  Winter  Morn- 
ing. 

The  Bells  on  Christmas  Morn- 
ing. 

The  Sky  on  a  Frosty  Evening. 

A  Well-to-Do  Man's  Table  on 
Christmas. 

A  Poor  Man's  Table  on  Christ- 
mas. 

Preparations  for  Papering  a 
Room. 

An  Old  Barn. 

An  Old  Bridge. 

Sounds  on  a  Cold  Winter  Morn- 
ing. 

A  Coasting  Scene. 

The  Beach  in  Winter.  (Deserted 
except  for  sea-gulls.) 

The  Work  of  Jack  Frost. 

A  Rickety  Fence  in  Winter. 

A  Rickety  Fence  in  Summer  and 
Its  Friends. 

A  Study  in  Green. 

A  Gust  of  Wind. 

A  Dusty  Day. 

A  Sandy  Road. 

A  Generous  Act. 

A  Ragamuffin. 

My  Old  Doll. 

A  Lonesome  Cricket. 

A  June  Day. 

My  Favorite  Author. 

My  Favorite  Book. 

My  Favorite  Chwacter. 

My  Hero. 


282 


FOUNDATION  ENGLISH 


My  Idea  of  Perfect  Bliss. 

My  Heroine. 

From  My  Window. 

From  My  Piazza. 

A  Mossy  Bank. 

A  Picturesque  Wall. 

A  Sunset. 

My  Friend,  the  Hop-Toad. 

A  Spring  Gown. 

A  Gay  Girl. 

A  Giddy  Girl. 

A  Smooth  Pond. 

Den  Rock  in  Winter. 

Snow-Covered  Fields  on  a  Sunny 

Morning. 
A  Grove  of  Evergreens. 
A  Pair  of  Red  Mittens. 
A  Full  Moon. 

The  Night  Before  Christmas. 
A  View  from  the  Falls.    (Down 

the  river.) 
A  View  from  the  Falls.  (Up  the 

river.) 
The  Face  I  Know  Best. 
A  Comer  of  the  Garret. 
A  Comer  of  the  Old  Bam. 
Describe  a  Picture. 
A  Piece  of  Coral. 
A  Dollar  Bill. 
A  Portrait. 
The    Common    (or    Park)    at 

Night. 
My  Bicycle,  after  a  Collision. 
A  PoHtical  Cartoon. 
A  Pool  of  Water. 
An  Old  Tree. 
A  Scraggly  Apple  Tree. 
A  Clump  of  Pines. 


A  Dreary  Scene. 

A  Cheerful  Scene. 

An  Inviting  Couch. 

Moving  Shadows.     (Cast  by 

firelight.) 
My  Notebook. 
My  Canary. 
A  Tiger  Skin  (or  any  skin  used 

for  a  rug). 
A  Street  Scene. 
A  Street  Comer. 
A  Bit  of  Sunshine. 
A  Path  in  the  Woods. 
A  Cherry  Tree. 
A  Spring  Songster. 
A  Whiff  of  Odor. 
May  Blossoms. 
A  Queer  Girl. 
A  Merry  Group. 
A  Bed  of  Violets. 
A  Laughable  Sight. 
A  Pair  of  Old  Shoes. 
My  Last  Summer's  Hat. 
A  Remodeled  Gown. 
My  Fishing  Regalia. 
The  Oldest  Person  I  Know. 
My  Baby  Brother  (or  sister). 
A  Shady  Nook. 
A  Calm  Retreat. 
A  Comer  in  the  Orchard. 
After  a  Shower, 
A  Queer  Trick. 
A  Bonfire  (at  night). 
A  Furrowed  Field. 
The  Patient  Horse. 
A  Study  in  Color. 
A  Frog  Pond 
My  First  Teacher. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  SHORT  THEMES 


283 


Street  Cries. 

My  Most  Intimate  Friend. 
A  Stray  Dog  (or  cat). 
A  Budding  Maple  Tree. 
A  Green  Field. 

An  Observation  of  Ten  Minutes. 
Up  and  Down  the  Brooks. 
A  Modest  Flower. 
A  Bunch  of  Violets. 
Trailing  Arbutus. 
The  Celandine. 
A  Bird's  Nest. 
The  First  Dandelioa 
A  Late  Blossom. 
A  Ploughed  Field. 
A  Babbling  Brook. 
A  Dilapidated  Place. 
A  Typical  New  England  House. 
A  Row  of  Poplar  Trees. 
A  Snow  Flurry. 
The  Old  Cart  Horse. 
A  Glimpse  from   a  Car  Win- 
dow. 
A  Hillside. 
My  Old  Reader. 
A  Leafless  Tree. 
A  Forest  of  Pine  Trees. 


A  Frozen  Swamp. 

An  Old  Grain  Mill. 

A  Moss-Grown  Stone. 

A  Tree  after  a  Snow  Storm. 

A  Few  Tumbles  on  the  Ice. 

A  Walk  in  the  Shadows. 

An  Adventure. 

An  Exciting  Experience. 

My  Opinion. 

A  Bit  of  Dialogue. 

A  Study  in  Gray. 

Set  in  Silver. 

Every  Cloud  has  a  Silver  Lin- 
ing (or  any  other  proverb). 

A  Bit  of  Satire. 

A  Bit  of  Humor. 

A  Good  Joke. 

Overheard  in  Passimg. 

A  Glimpse  into  the  Windows  of 
a  Passing  Train. 

A  Current  Event. 

A  Symphony  in  Color. 

A  Sad  Experience. 

A  Desolate  Scene. 

The  North  Wind  Doth  Blow. 

Zephyrs  Gently  Straying. 

Old  Boreas. 


284  CORRECTING  THEMES 

8TMB0LS  FOR  USE  IN  CORRECTING  THEMES. 

II  Sentence  should  or  should  not  begin  here. 

Ms.  Illegible  or  careless  manuscript. 

sp.  Fault  in  spelling. 

p.  Fault  in  punctuation. 

Cap.  Capital  letter  needed. 

1.  c.  Use  small  letter  instead  of  a  capital. 

/\  Caret.    Something  necessary  to  the  thought  or 

construction  needed, 

gr.  Fault  in  grammar. 

%  Begin  a  paragraph  here. 

No  H  Do  not  begin  a  paragraph  here. 

0  Obscure;  not  clear. 

K         Awkward,  clumsy  construction, 
quots.  Quotation  marks  needed. 

1  Placed  opposite  the  sentence  means  to  recast  the 

sentence. 
X        Some  fault  too  obvious  for  comment. 
^  Dele = omit. 

[  ]        Omit  part  enclosed  in  brackets. 
WW.     Use  a  better  word. 


INDEX 


^8op,  155. 

Addison,  Joseph,  35,  86,  103. 

Adjectives,  correct  use  of,  107, 
108,  109;  defined,  214;  classi- 
fied, 223,  224;  inflection  of, 
241;  syntax  of,  246. 

Adverbs,  correct  use  of,  107, 108, 
109;  defined,  214;  classified, 
229,  230;  inflection  of,  243; 
syntax  of,  247. 

Analysis,  250. 

Apostrophe,  26,  256. 

Appendixes,  213-284. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  62,  152. 

Bacon,  Francis,  61,  68,  109. 

Be,  conjugation  of,  239. 

Beech  Tree's  Petition,  The,  89. 

Blackmore,  Richard,  43,  168, 
180. 

Brown,  Dr.  John,  92,  93. 

Browning,  Robert,  34,  68. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  82. 

Bryce,  James,  155. 

Buckland,  Francis  T.,  170. 

Burke,  Edmund,  15, 27, 158, 170. 

Burroughs,  John,  7,  11. 

Busmess  Letter,  The,  119-147; 
materials,  119;  parts  of,  119, 
146;  arrangement,  120;  exer- 
cises, 125,  138;  content,  127; 
point  of  view,  128;  sub- 
jects for  writing,  129,  132, 
136,  138,  139,  145;  details, 
130;  illustrative  letters,  130- 
135;  folding  the  letter  and 
addressing  the  envelope,  134; 
applying  for  position,  137, 
147;  formal  note,  140,  141, 
143,  144,  145,  147;  Bummaiy, 
146, 147. 


Byron,  Lord,  192. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  89. 

Can,  90. 

CapitaHzation,  33,  34,  256-258. 

Carlyle,  Jane  Welch,  179. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  200. 

Case,  233,  244. 

Classification  of  parts  of  speech, 
219-232. 

Clauses,  correct  use  of,  183,  186; 
defined.  214;  exercises,  187, 
188;   classified,  218. 

Clearness^  6;  by  distinguishing 
marks  m  sentences,  9;  length 
of  sentence,  15;  by  revision, 
16;  by  punctuation,  20,  26; 
by  capitalization,  33. 

Collins,  Thomas,  77. 

Colon,  The,  253. 

Comma,  The,  20;  exercises  in 
placing,  21,  22;  uses,  251. 

Composition  defined,  2. 

Concord  Hymn,  The,  24. 

Conjugation,  239-241. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  214;  clas- 
sified, 231, 232;  syntax  of,  248. 

Corinna's  Maying,  50. 

Could,  90. 

Cowper,  William,  31. 

Crockett,  S.  R.,  58,  65. 

Dash,  The,  254. 
Declension,  234. 
Defoe,  Daniel,  66,  74,  75. 
Dickens,  Charles,  172,  200. 

Eliot,  George,  153,  176. 
Emerson,  Ralph  W.,  24,  61. 
Endorsement  of  Mss.,  4. 
Exclamation  Point,  The,  264. 


285 


286 


INDEX 


Exercises  in  capitalization,  10, 
33;  in  punctuation,  21,  22, 
26. 

Expression  of  ideas  in  the  short 
theme,  1-116;  in  business 
letters,  119-147;  in  the  long 
theme,  151-210. 

Familiar  Letter,  The,  196-203, 
210;  illustrative  letters,  197- 
201;  subjects  for,  202. 

Figures  of  Speech,  190-195,  209. 

Foote,  Samuel,  164. 

Formal  Note,  The,  140-145, 147. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  163. 

Gettysburg  Address,  154. 
Hyphen,  The,  255. 

Ideal  Paragraph,  The,  159. 

Incident  of  the  French  Camp,  68. 

Indentation,  4. 

Infinitives,  classified,  227;  in- 
flection of,  238;  syntax  of, 
246. 

Inflection  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 
232-243. 

Interjections,  214,  248. 

Interrogation  Point,  254. 

/  Stood  Tip-Toe,  37. 

Irving,  Washington,  22,  29,  39, 
64,  86,  102,  103,  155,  159,  161, 
165,  272. 

Keats,  John,  37. 

La  Fontaine.  160. 

Lamb,  Charles,  104,  151. 

Lay  or  lie,  90. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  9. 

Letters,  Business,  119-147;  fa- 
miliar, 196-203,  210. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  154. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  12,  64, 
193. 

Loss  of  the  Royal  George,  The,  31. 

Lucy  Gray,  41. 


Metaphor,  190,  191,  210. 

Paragraph,  The,  defined,  151, 
152,  208;  exercises,  153,  161, 
166-8;  connecting  words  be- 
tween, 167,  168. 

Parentheses,  255. 

Participles,  238;  syntax  of,  247. 

Parts  of  Speech,  correctness  in 
use  of,  78-112;  defined,  214; 
exercises,  215. 

Past  and  Present,  18. 

Period,  The^  254. 

Personification,  190,  210. 

Phrases,  defined,  212;  position 
of,  183,  184,  186,  209;  exer- 
cises, 187;  classified,  216. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  52. 

Point  of  View,  204. 

Predicate,  The,  213. 

Preliminaries,  1. 

Prepositions,  214,  231;  syntax  of, 
248. 

Principal  Parts  of  Verbs,  229. 

Pronouns,  101;  exercises,  101, 
102;  inflection  of,  232;  de- 
clension of,  234;  syntax  of, 
245. 

Psalms,  The,  191. 

Punctuation,  exercises,  10,  21, 
26-28;  clearness  by  use  of, 
20,  26. 

Pupils'  Themes,  104,  110,  111, 
266-280. 

Quotation  Marks,  20,  255. 

Reverie  of  Poor  Sitsan,  The,  45^ 
Ruskin,  John,  86,  163,  169. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  17,  55,  72. 

Semi-colon,  The,  253. 

Sentence,  The,  defined,  6,  9,  213; 
length  of,  15,  213;  exercises  in 
writing,  16;  classified,  215; 
analysis  of,  250. 

s-form  of  verbs,  78,  79,  80. 

Shakspere,  Wm.,27^  193. 


INDEX 


287 


Simile,  190,  191,  210. 

Smith,  Sidney,  206. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  26,  65, 
87,  162,  173,  199. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  93. 

Subject  and  predicate,  213. 

Subjects  for  Themes,  Written, 
5,  7,  12,  18,  24,  30,  36,  40,  44, 
49,  54,  62,  67,  76,  81,  88,  94, 
99,  105,  111,  129,  132,  136, 
138,  139,  145,  157,  166,  174, 
178,  182,  185,  189,  194,  202, 
281-283.  Oral,  8,  12,  18,  24, 
31,  37,  40,  45,  49,  55,  62,  67, 
76,  82,  88,  94,  99,  106,  112. 

Summaries,  113,  146,  147,  208- 
210. 

Symbols  for  Correcting,  284. 

Synonyms,  46. 

Syntax  of  Parts  of  Speech,  244r- 
248. 


Taine,  H.  A.,  17.  191. 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  59,  65,  99. 
Test  of  Unity,  159. 
Themes,  defined,  2;   written  by 


ptipiifl,  103,  110,  111;  the 
short  theme,  1-116;  the  long 
theme,  151-210. 

Things  to  be  avoided,  204-207. 

Thoreau,  Henry,  60. 

Title  defined,  3. 

To-morrow,  77. 

Van  Dyke,  John  C,  155. 

Verbs,  78;  s-form,  78,  79;  exer- 
cises, 80,  85,  90;  lie,  lay, 
90,  91,  92;  will,  shall,  95; 
exercises.  96,  214;  classified, 
225;  inflection,  235. 

Vocabulary,  defined,  12. 

Washington,  George,  10. 

White,  Gilbert,  152. 

Whittier,  John  G.,  171,  271. 

Will  or  shall,  would  or  should,  95. 

Words,  correct  use  of,  38;  exer- 
cises, 39,  43,  46,  47,  59,  60,  61, 
64,  72,  73,  74;  synonyms,  46, 
48;  variety,  52,  53;  vividness, 
68;  specific,  59,  60,  61. 

Wordsworth,  WiUiam,  41,  45,  60. 

Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The,  12. 


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